AHMEDABAD WOMEN ACTION GROUP AND ORS. ETC.versusUNION OF INDIA

         AHMEDABAD WOMEN ACTION GROUP AND ORS. ETC.                               A
                                         v.
                               UNION OF INDIA

                              FEBRUARY 24, 1997

             [A.M. AHMADI, C.J., SlJJATA V. MANOHAR AND                           B
                       K. VENKATASWAMI, JJ.]


          Constitution of India-Articles 13, 14, 15 and 32--Scope of-Power of
     the Court-Legislative policy relating to personal laws-interference ,by
     couns-Extent of-Personal Laws.                                           C
           Three writ petitions were filed by different organisations under
     Article 32 of the Constitution of India as public interest litigation, The
     Ahmedabad Women Action Group prayed for the follo~ing reliefs in its
     writ petition :-
                                                                                  D
           (a) to declare Muslim Personal Law which allows polygamy as void
     offending Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution;

            (b) to describe Muslim Personal Law which enables a Muslim male
     to give unilateral Talaq to his ~ife mthout her consent and mthout resort E
     to judicial process of courts, as void, offending Articles 13, 14 and 15 of
     the Constitution.


--
'          (c) to declare that the mere fact that a Muslim husband takes more
     than one mfe is an act of cruelty mthin the meaning of Clause VIII (I} of
     Section 2 of Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939.                       F

           (d) to declare that Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce)
     Act, 1986 is void infringing Articles 14 and 15.

           (e) to further declare that the provisions of Sunni and Shia laws of G
     inheritance which discriminate against females in their share as compared
     to the share of males of the same status, void as discriminating against
     females only on the ground of sex.

           In the Writ petition filed by Lok Sewak Sangh, the follomng reliefs
     were prayed for:-                                                            H
                                        389
    390                  SUPREME COURT REPORTS                   (1997] 2 S.C.R.

A         (a) to declare Sections 2(2), 5(ii) & (iii), 6 and Explanation to
    Section 30 of Hindu Succession Act, 1956, as void offending Articles 14 and
    15 read with Article 13 of the Constitutilln of India;

          (b) to declare Section (2) of Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, as void
    offending Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India;
B
         (c) to declare Sections 3(2), 6 and 9 of Hindu Minority and Guar·
    dianship Act read with Sections 6 of Guardians and Wards Act as void;

          (d) to declare the unfettered and absolute discretion allowed to a
    Hindu spouse to make testamentary disposition without providing for an
c   ascertained share of his or her spouse and dependent, void.

          Similarly in their writ petition, the Young Women Christian As·
    sociation sought for a declaration that Section 10 and 34 of Indian Divorce
    Act and Sections 43 to 48 of Indian Succession Act are void.
D
          Dismissing the writ petitions, this Court

          HELD : 1.1. The Legislature is responsible for the welfare of the
    State and it is for them to lay down the policy that the State should pursue.
    Therefore, it is for them to determine what legislation to put up on the
E   statute book in order to advance the welfare of the State. The Courts are
    not concerned with the proprietory of their views or their wisdom. [395-F]

           1.2. The Courts can at best advise and focus attention on the State
    policy on the problem and shake it from its slumber, goading it to awaken,
    march and reach the goal. For, in whatever measure be the concern of the
F   court, it compulsively needs to apply, somewhere and at sometime, breaks
    to its self-motion, described in judicial parlance as self-restraint.

       Maharslzi Avadhcsh v. Union of India, [1994] Supp. 1 SCC 715;
  Reynold Rajamani & Anr. v. Union of India & Anr., [1982] 2 SCC 474;               <
G Pannalal Bansilal & Ors. v. State of A.P. & Anr., [1996] 2 SCC 498 and
  Madhu Kishwar & Ors. v. State of Bihar & Ors., [1996) 5 SCC 125, relied
  on.

          2. The Constitution of India itself recognises the existence of per·
    sonal laws in terms when it deals with the topic falling under personal Jaw
H   in item 5 in the Concurrent List-List Ill. Yet the framers of the Constitu-
    AHMEDABAD WOMEN ACTIONv. U.O.I. [VENKATASWAMI,J.]                     391

tion did not wish that the provisions or the personal laws should be             A
challenged by reason of the fundamental rights guaranteed in Part Ill of
the Constitution and so they did not intend to include these personal laws
within the definition of the expression "laws in force." Therefore, the
personal laws do not fall within Article 13(1) at all. [399-D-G]

      State of Bombay v. Narasu Appa Mali, AIR (1952) Born. 84, cited.           B
      Krishna Singh v. Mathura Ahir & Ors., AIR (1980) SC 707, relied on.

      Sar/a Mudgal & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. [1995) 3 SCC 635,
distinguished.
                                                                                 c
      3. There is no substance in the challenge by the petitioner to the vires
of the provisions of Section 10 of the Indian Divorce Act as being dis-
criminatory, and therefore, violative or Article 14 of the Constitution.
                                                                      [404-E]
     Anil Kumar Mahsi v. Union of India & Anr. [1994) 5 SCC 704, D
followed.

      4. So far as the challenge to the Muslim Women (Protection of
Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 is concerned, the said issue is pending before
a Constitution Bench of this Court. Therefore, there is no reason to
multiply proceedings in that behalf. [404-F]                                     E
     CIVIL ORIGINAL JURISDICTION : Writ Petition (C) No. 494 of
1996 Etc.

      (Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India.)
                                                                                 F
      T.U. Mehta and P.P. Juneja for the Petitioners.

      The Judgment of the Court was delivered by :

       VENKATASWAMI. J. All these Writ Petitions are filed as Public
Interest Litigation. In W.P. (C) No. 494/96, the reliefs prayed for are as       G
follows:

      (a) to declare Muslim Personal Law which allows ploygamy as void
          as offending Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution ;

      (b) to declare Muslim Personal Law which enables a Muslim male H
    392                    SUPREME COURT REPORTS                   (1997] 2 S.C.R.

A               to give unilateral Talaq to his wife without her consent and
                without. resort to judicial process of courts, as void, offending
                Articles 13, 14 and 15 of the Constitution;
               0


            (c) to declare that the mere fact that a Muslim husband takes more
                than one wife is act of cruelty within the meaning of Clause VIII
B               (t) of Section 2 of Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939.

            (d) to declare that Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce)
                Act, 1986 is void as infringing Articles 14 and 15.

            (e) to further declare that the provisions of Sunni and Shia laws of
c                inheritance which disriminating against females in their share as
                 compared to the share of males of the same status, void as
                ·discriminating against females only on the ground of sex.

            In writ Petition (C) No. 496/96, the reliefs prayed for are the follow-
    ing:-
D
            (a) to declare Sections 2 (2). 5 (ii) & (iii), 6 and, Explanation to
                Section 30 of Hindu Succession Act. 1956, as void offending
                Articles 14 and 15 read with Article 13 of the Constitution of
                India :
E
            (b) to declare Section (2) of Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, as void
               . offending Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India :

            (c) to declare Sections 3 (2), 6 and 9 of Hindu Minority and Guar-
                dianship Act read with Sections 6 of Guardians and Wards Act
F               void:

            (d) to declare the unfettered and absolute discretion allowed to a
                Hindu spouse to make testamentary disposition without provid-
                ing for an ascertained share of his or her spouse and dependent,
                void.
G
            In writ Petition (C) No. 721/96, the reliefs prayed for are following:-

            (a) to declare Sections 10 and 34 of Indian Divorce Act void and
                also to declare Sections 43 to 48 of Indian Succession Act void.

H           At the outset, we would like to slate that these Writ Petitions do not
        AHMEDABAD WOMEN ACTIONv. U.0.1. [VENKATASWAMI,J.]                   393

    deserve disposal on merits inasmuch as the arguments advanced by the A
    learned Sr. Advocate before us wholly involve issues of State policies with
    which the Court will not ordinarily have any concern. Further, we find that
    when similar attempts were made, of course by others, on earlier occasions
    this Court held that the remedy lies somewhere else and not by knocking
    at the doors of the courts.
                                                                                  B
          In MaharshiAvadl!esh v. Union of India, (1994] Supp. 1 SCC 715,.
    this Court while dismissing a Petition under Article 32 of the Constitution
    held as follows :-

                 "This is a petition by a party in person under Article 32 of the C
             Constitution. The prayers are two-fold. The first prayer is to issue
             a writ of mandamus to the respondents to consider the question
            of enacting a common Civil Code for all citizens of India. The
            second prayer is to declare Muslim Women (Protection of Right
            on Divorce) Act, 1986 as void being arbitrary and discriminatory
             and in violation of Articles 14 and 15, Fundamental Rights and D
            Articles 44, 38, 39 and 39-A of the Constitution of India. The
             third prayer is to direct the respondents not to enact Shariat Act
             in respect of those adversely affecting the dignity and right of
             Muslim Women and against their protection. These are all matters
            for legislature. 17ie Court cannot legislate in these matters. The Writ E
             petition is dismissed."

          In Reynold Rajamani and Another v. Union of India and Another,
    (1982] 2 SCC 474 this Court while deali~g with the scope of sections 7 and
    10 of the Indian Divorce Act, 1869 held as follows:-
                                                                                   F
            "4. It cannot be denied that society is generally interested in
            maintaining the marriage bond and preserving the matrimonial
            State with a view to protecting societal stability, the family home

-           and the proper growth and happiness of children of the marriage.
            Legislation for the purpose of dissolving the marriage constitutes
            a departure from that primary principle, and the legislature is · G
            extremely circumspect in setting forth the grounds on which a
            marriage may be dissolved. The history of all matrimonial legisla-
            tion will show that at the ontset conservative attitudes influenced
            the grounds on which separation or divorce could be granted. Over
            the decades, a more liberal attitude has been adopted, fostered by . H
    394                  SUPREME COURT REPORTS                     [1997] 2 S.C.R.

A           a recognition of the need for the individual happiness of the adult
            parties directly involved. But although the grounds for divorce have
            been liberalised, they nevertheless continue to form an exception
            to the general principle favouring the continuation of the marita~
            tie. In our opinion, when a Legislative provision specifies the
                                                                                      -
            grounds on which divorce may be granted they constitute the only
B           condition on which the court has jurisdiction to grant divorce. If
            grounds need to be added to those already specifically set forth in
            the legislation, that is the business of the legislature and not of the
            courts. It is another matter in construing the language in which the
            grounds are incorporated the courts should give a liberal construc-
c           tion to it. Indeed, we think that the courts must give the fullest
            amplitude of meaning to such a provision. But it must be a meaning
            which the language of the section is capable of holding. It cannot
            be extended by adding new grounds not enumerated in the section.

            6. Miss Thomas appeals to us to adopt a policy of social engineer-
D           ing and to give to section 7 the content which has been enacted in
            Section 26 of the Special Marriage Act, 1954 and Section 13-B of
            the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, both of which provide for divorce
            by mutual consent. It is possible to say that the law relating to
            Hindu marriages and to marriages governed by the Special Mar-
E           riage Act presents a more advanced stage of development in this
            area than the Indian Divorce Act. However, whether a provision for
            divorce by mutual consent should be included in the Indian Divorce
            Act is a matter of legislative policy. The courts cannot extend or
            enlarge legislative policy by adding a provision to the statute which
            was never enacted there."
F
           In Pannalal Bansilal and others v. State of A.P. and Another, [1996]
    2 SCC 498 validity of Sections 15, 16, 17, 29(5) and 144 of the AP.
    Charitable Hindu Religions and Endowments Act, 1987 were challenged.
    Inter alia this Court held :-
G
              · "The first question is whether it is necessary that the legislature
            should make law uniformly applicable to all religions or charitable
            or public institutions and endowments established or maintained
            by people professing all religions. In a pluralist society like India
H           in which people have faith in their respective religions, beliefs or
    AHMEDABADWOM::'.N AC110Nv. U.0.1. [VENKATASWAMl,J.)                     395

        tenets propounded by different religions or their offshoots, the           A
        founding fathers, while making the Constitution, were confronted
        with problems to unify and integrate people of India professing
        different religious faiths, born in different castes, sex or sub-sec-
        tions in the society speaking different languages and dialects in
        different regions and provided a secular Constitution to integrate
        all sections of the society as a united Bharat. The directive prin-        B
        ciples of the Constitution themselves visualise diversity and at-
        tempted t<? foster uniformity among people of different faiths. A
        uniform law, though is might desirable, enactment thereof in one
        go perhaps may be counter-productive to unity and integrity of the
        nation. In a democracy governed by rule of law, gradual progres-           C
        sive change and order should be brought about. Making law or
        amendment to a law is a slow process and the legislature attempts
        to remedy where the need is felt most acute. It would, therefore, be
        inexpedient and incorrect to think that all laws have to be made
        uniformly applicable to all people in one go. The mischief or defect       D
        which is most acute can be remedied by process of law at stages."

     In State of Bombay v. Narasu Appa Mali, AIR (1952) Bombay 84,
Chagla, C.J ., while considering the validity of the Bombay Prevention of
Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act, 1946, observed as follows :-
                                                                                   E
        "A question has been raised as to whether it is for the Legislature
        to decide wh.at constitutes social reform. It must not be forgotten
        that in democracy the Legislature is constituted by the chosen
        representatives of the people. They are responsible for the welfare
        of the State and it is for them to lay down the policy that the State
        should pursue. The refore, it is for them to detennine what legisl:rtion   F
        to put up on the statute book in order to advance the welfare of the
        State."

     It was further observed that :-

        "There can be no doubt that the Muslims have been excluded from G
        the operation of the Act in question. Even Section 494, Penal Code,
        which makes bigamy an offence applies to Parsis, Christians and
        others, but not to Muslims because polygamy is recognised as a
        valid institution when a Muslim male marries more than one wife.
        The question that we have to consider is whether there is any H
    396                 SUPREME COURT REPORTS                   (1997] 2 S.C.R.

A          reasonable basis for creating the Muslims as a separate class to ·
           which the laws prohibiting polygamy should not apply. Now, it is
           an ·historic fact that both the Muslims and the Hindus in this
           country have their own personal laws which are based upon their
           respective religious texts and which embody their own distinctive
           evolution and which are coloured by their own distinctive back-
B          grounds. Article 44 itself recognises separate and distinctive per-
           sonal laws because it lays down as a directive to be achieved that
           within a measurable time India should enjoy the privilege of a
           common uniform Civil Code applicable to all its citizens irrespec-
           tive of race or religion. Therefore, what the Legislature has at-
c          tempted to do by the Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act is to
           introduce social reform in respect of a particular community having
           its own personal law. The institution of marriage is differently
           looked upon by the Hindus and the Muslims. Whereas to the
           former, it is a sacrament, to the latter it is a matter of contract.
           That is also the reason why the question of the dissolution of
D
           marriage is differently tackled by the two religions. While the
           Muslim law admits of easy divorce, Hindu marriage is considered
           indissoluble and it is only recently that the State passed legislation
           permitting divorce among Hindus. The State was also entitled to
           consider the educational development of the two communities.
E          One community might be prepared to accept and work social
            reform; another may not yet be prepared for it; and Art. 14 does
           not lay down that any legislation that the State may embark upon
            must necessarily be of an all embracing character. The State may
            rightly decide to bring about social reform by stages and the stages
            may be territorial or they may be communitywise. From these
F
           considerations it follows that if there is a discirmination against
            the Hindu in the applicablity of the Hindus Bigamous Marriages
            Act, that discrimination is not based only upon ground ,of religion.


G
            Equally so if the law with regard to bigamous marriages· i.$ not
            uniform, the difference and distinction is not arbitrary or capri-
            cious, but is based upon reasonable grounds."
                                                                                    -
          Gajendragadkar J ., in his concurrent but separate opinion expressed
    the same. view by observing as follows :-


H              "The next question is whether this Act discriminates against the
HMEDABAD WOMEN ACTION v. U.O.I. [VENKATASW AMI, J.]             397

  Hindus in reference to the Christian and the Parsi citizens of this A
  State, in so far as it subjects the Hindus alone to the specially
  severe provisions as to punishment and procedure. It is true that
  whereas under the general criminal law the offence of bigamy is
  cognizable only on the complaint of the wife, the impugned Act
  makes it cognizable so that the complaint of the wife, is unneces- B
  sary to start the proceedings against the offending husband. The
  offence of bigamy is compoundable under the general criminal law;
  but not unde; the impugned Act; and the word "abettor" under the
  impugned Act is aJso wider than under the Indian Penal Code.
· These provisions in fact are alleged to constitute discrimination
  against the Hindus. In dealing with this question, however, it must C
  be remembered that the Legislature may have thought that the evil
  of bigamy prevailing amongst the Hindus could not be effectively
  put down unless the offence was made cognizable and unless
  amongst the abettors were included even the priests who officiate
  at Hindu Marriages. As I have already mentioned, Hindu marriage D
  is a love and devotion of the Hindu wife for her husband is well
  known. Legislature may well have thought that it would be futile
  to make the offence of Hindu bigamy punishable at the instance
  of the wife because Hin<lu wives may not come forward with any
  complaint at all. Among the Christians and the Parsis, monogamy E
  has been practised for several years and marriage amongst them
  is a matter of contract. Amongst them divorce is permissible,
  whereas amongst the Hindus it was not permissible for so many
  years. If the Legislature acting on these considerations wanted to
  provide for a special procedure in dealing with bigamous marriages F
  amongst the Hindus it cannot be said that the Legislature was
  discriminating against the Hindus only on the ground of religion.
 It was for the Legislature to take into account the social customs
  and beliefs of the Hindus and other relevant considerations before
  deciding whether it was necessary to provide for special provisions
  in dealing with bigamous marriages amongst them. That clearly is G
 the province of the Legislature and with the propriety of their views
  or their wisdom Courts are not concerned. I, therefore, hold that
  there is no substance in the argument that the penal provisions of
  one impugned Act constitute discrimination against the Hindus
  only on the ground of religion.                                      H
    398                  SUPREME COURT REPORTS                    (1997) 2 S.C.R.

A              There is one more point with which I would like to deal. It has
            been argued before us that the impugned Act should have been
            made applicable to the Mahomedan citizens of the State of Bom-
            bay. It is said that if the impugned Act constitutes a measure of
            social reform, there is no reason why the State Legislature should
            not have given the Mahomedan community the benefit of this social
B
            reform. The Union of India is a secular State and the State
            Legislature was wrong in making a distinction between its citizens
            on the ground of religious differences and in applying the
            provisions of the impugned Act only on Hindus. In part this
            argument is political and as such we are not concerned with it. But
c           part of the argument is based upon the provisions of Article 14 of
            the Constitution of India and it is necessary to deal with this aspect
            of the argument."

          The learned Judge further observed as follows :-
D
                "But it is argued that even as to this social reform, the State
            Legislature should have made it all pervasive and should not have
            left the Mahomedans outside its ambit. That, as I have already said,
            is partly a political, and partly a legal argument, whether it was
            expedient to make this Act applicable to the Mahomedans as well
E           as to the Hindus would be a matter for the Legislature to consider.
            It is now well settled that the equality before the law which is
            guaranteed by Article 14 is not offended by the impugned Act if
            the classification which the Act makes is based on reasonable and
            rational considerations. It is not obligatory for the State Legislature
F           always and in every case to provide for social welfare and reform
            by one step. So long as the State Legislature in taking gradual steps
            for social welfare and reform does not iutroduce distinctions or
             classifications which are unreasonable, irrational or oppressive, it
            cannot be said that the equality before law is offended. The State
            Legislature may have thought that the Hindu community was more
G            ripe for the reform in question. Social reformers amongst the
             Hindus have agitated for this reform vehemently for many years
             past and the social conscience of the Hindus, according to the
             Legislature, may have been more in tune with the spirit of the
             proposed reform. Besides, amongst the Mahomedans divorce has
H            always been permissible and marriage amongst them is a matter
    AHMED ABAD WOMEN ACTION v. U.O.L [VENKATASWAMI, J.]                    399

        of contract. If the State Legislature acting on such considerations       A
        decided to enforce this reform in the first instance amongst the
        Hindus, it would be impossible in my opinion to hold that in
        confining the impugned Act to Hindus as defined by the Act, it
        has violated the equality before law as guaranteed by Article 14.
        In my opinion, therefore, the argument that Article 14 is violated        B
        by the impugned Act must fail.";

     Gajendragadkar J. also expressed his op1mon on the question
whether Patt III of the Constitution applies to personal laws. The learned
Judge observed as follows :-
                                                                                  c
            "The Constitution of India itself recognises the existence of
        these personal laws in terms when it deals with the topic falling
        under personal law in item 5 in the Concurrent List-List III. This
        item deals with the topics of marriage and divorce; infants and
        minors; adoption : wills, intestacy and succession; joint family and      D
        partition; all matters in respect of which parties in judicial proceed-
        ings were immediately before the commencement of this Constitu-
        tion subject to their personal law. Thus it is competent either to
        the State or the Union Legislature to legislate on topics falling
        within the purview of the personal law and yet the expression
        "personal law" is not used in Art. 13, because, in my opinion, the        E
        framers of the Constitution wanted to leave the personal laws
        outside the ambit of Part III of the Constitution. They must have
        been aware that these personal laws needed to be reformed in
        many material particulars and in fact they wanted to abolish these
        different personal laws and to evolve one common code. Yet they           F
        did not wish that the provisions of the personal laws should be
        challenged by reason of the fundamental rights guaranteed in Part
        III of the Constitution and so they did not intend to include these
        personal laws within the definition of the expression "laws in force."
        Therefore, I agree with the learned Chief .I ustice in holding that
        the personal laws do not fall within Article 13(j) at all."               G

       In Krishna Singh v. Mathura Ahir and others, AIR (1980) SC 707 this
Court while considering the question whether a Sudra could be ordained
to a religious order and become a Sanvasi or Yati and, therefore, installed
as a Mahant of the Garwagnat Math according to the tenets of the Sant             H
    400                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS                   [1997] 2 S.C.R.

A Mat Sampradaya, inter alia held as follows :-
                "It would be convenient, at the outset, to deal with the view
            expressed by the High Court that the strict rule enjoined by the
            Smriti writers as a result of which Sudras were considered to be
            incapable of entering the order of yati or sanyasi, has ceased to be
B           valid because of the fundamental rights guaranteed under Part III
            of the Constitution. In our opinion, the learned Judges failed to
            appreciate that Part III of the Constitution does not touch upon
            the personal laws of the parties. In applying the personal laws of
            the parties, he could not introduce his own concepts of the law as
c           derived from recognised and authoritative sources of Hindu law,
            i.e. Smritis and commentaries referred to, as interpreted in the
            judgment of various High Courts, except where such.law is altered
            by any usage or custom or is modified or abrogated by statute."

          In Sar/a Mudgal and others v. Union of India and Others, (1995] 3
D   sec 635 this Court observed :-
                "Article 33 is based on the concept that there is no necessary
            connection between religion and personal law in a civilised society.
            Article 25 guarantees religious freedom whereas Article 44 seeks
            to divest religion from social relations and personal law. Marriage,
E           succession and like matters of a secular character cannot be
            brought within the guarantee enshrined under Article 25, 26 and
            27. The personal law of the Hindus, such as relating to marriage,
            succession and the like have all a sacramental origin, in the same
            manner as in the case of the Muslims or the Christians. The Hindus
F           along with Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains have forsaken their senti-
            ments in the cause of the national unity and integration, some other
            communities would not, though the Constitution enjoins the estab-
            lishment of a "common civil code" for the whole of India."

          However, none of the decisions referred to above were placed before
G   the Division Bench as they find no mention in the separate judgments of
    Kuldip Singh, J. and R.M. Sahai, J. That is because there was no occasion
    to consider whether Part III of the Constitution of India had any applica-
    tion to personal laws or not. Suffice it to say that we are satisfied that the
    arguments advanced before us as pointed out at the outset involve iss·ues,
H   in our opinion, to be dealt with by the legislature.
        AHMEDABADWOMEN ACTIONv. U.0.1. [VENKATASWAMI,J.)                    401

          We may further point out that the question regarding the desirability    A
    of enacting a Uniform Civil Code did not directly arise in that case. The
    questions which were formulated for decision by Kuldip Singh, J. in his
    judgment were these :

                "[W)hether a Hindu husband, married under Hindu law, by
             embracing Islam, can solemnise second marriage? Whether such          B
            ·a marriage without having the first marriage dissolved under law,

-            would be a valid marriage qua the first wife who continues to be
           . Hindu? Whether the apostate husband would be guilty of the
             offence under Section 494 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC)?"
                                                                                   c
          Sahai, J. in his separate but concurring judgment referred to the
    necessity for a Uniform Civil Code and said :

                "The desirability of Uniform Code can hardly be doubted. But
            it can concretize only when social climate is properly built up by
            elite of the society; statesmen amongst leaders who instead of         D
            gaining personal mileage rise above and awaken the masses to
            accept the change."

           Sahai, J. was of the opinion that while it was desirable to have a
    Uniform Civil Code, the time was yet not ripe and the issue should be          E
    entrusted to the Law Commission which may examine the same in consult-
    ation with the Minorities Commission. That is why when the Court drew
    up the final order signed by both the learned Judges it said "the writ
    petitions are allowed in terms of the answer to the questions posed in the
    opinion of Kuldip Singh, J ." These questions we have extracted earlier and
    the decision was confined to conclusions reached· thereon whereas the          F
    observations on the desirability of enacting the Uniform Civil Code were
    incidentally made.

          In Madhu Kish war & Others v. State of Bilzar & Others, [1996) 5 SCC
    125, this Court while considering the challenge made to certain provisions     G
    of the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908, observed as follows:-

               "It is worthwhile to account some legislation on the subject. The
            Hindu Succession Act governs and prescribes rules of succession
            applicable to a large majority of Indians being Hindus, Sikhs,
            Buddhists, Jains etc. whereunder since 1956, if not earlier, the       H
    402                SUPREME COURT REPORTS                    (1997] 2 S.C.R.

A         female heir is put on a par with a male heir. Next in the line of
          numbers is the Shariat law, applicable to Muslims, whereunder the
          female heir has an unequal share in the inheritance, by and large
          half of what a male gets. Then comes the Indian Succession Act
          which applies to Christians and by and large to people not covered
          under the aforesaid two laws, conferring in a certain manner
B         heirship on females as also males. Certain chapters thereof are not
          made applicable to certain communities. Sub-section (2) of Section
          2 of the Hindu Succession Act signiiicantly provides that nothing
          contained in the Act shall apply to the members of any Scheduled
          Tribe within the meaning of clause (25) of Article 366 of the
c         Constitution, unless otherwise directed by the Central Government
          by me<tns of a notification in the Official Gazette. Section 3(2)
          further provides that in the Act, unless the context otherwise
          requires, words importing the masculine gender shall not be taken
          to include females. General rule of legislative practice is that unless
          there is anything repugnant in the subject or context, words im-
D
           porting the masculine gender used in statutes are to be taken to
          include females. Attention be drawn to Section 13 of the General
          Clauses Act. But in matters of succession the general rule of
           plurality would have to be applied with circumspection. The afore
           provision thus appears to have been inserted ex abundanti cautela.
E         Even under Section 3 of the Indian Succession Act, the State
           Government is empowered to exempt any race, sect or tribe from
           the operation of the Act and the tribes of Mundas, Oraons,
          Sant~als etc. in the State of Bihar, who are included in our concern,
           have been so exempted. Thus neither the Hindu Succession-Act,
           nor the Indian Succession Act, nor even the Shariat law is ap-
F
           plicable to the custom-governed tribals. And custom, as is well
           recognized, varies from people to people and region to region.''

          "In the fact of these divisions and visible barricades put up by the
          sensitive tribal people valuing their own customs, traditions and
G         usages, judicially enforcing on them the principles of personal laws
          applicable to others, on an elitist approach or on equality principle,
          by judicial activism, is a difficult and mind-boggling effort. Brother
          K. Ramaswamy, J. seems to have taken the view that Indian
          legislatures (and Governments too) would not prompt themselves
H         to activate in this direction because of political reasons and in this
     AHMEDABADWOMENACTIONv. U.O.I.[VENKATASWAMI,J.]                      403

       situation, an activist court, a political as it avowedly is, could get   A
       into action and legislate broadly on the lines as suggested by the
       petitioriers. in their written submissions. However laudable,
       desirable and attractive the result may seem, it has happily been
       viewed by our learned brother that an activist cowt is not fully
       equipped to cope with the details and intricacies of the legislative B
       subject and can at best advise and focus attention 011 the State polity
       on the problem and shake it from its slumber, goading it to awaken,
       march and reach the goal. For, in whatever measure be the concem
       of the court, it compulsively needs to apply, somewhere and at
       sometime, brakes to its self-motion, described in judicial parlance as
       self-restraint. We agree therefore with brother K. Ramaswamy, J. C
       as summed up by him in the paragraph ending on p. 36 (para 46)
       of his judgment that under the circumstances it is not desirable lo
       declare the customs of tribal inhabitants as offending Articles 14,
       15 and 21 of the Constitution and each case must be examined
       when full facts are placed before the court.
                                                                                D
           With regard to the statutory provisions of the Act, he has
       proposed to the reading down of Sections 7 and 8 in order to
       preserve their constitutionality. This approach is available from p.
       36 (paras 47, 48) onwards of his judgment. The words "male
       descendant wherever occurring, would include "female descen- E
       dants". It is also proposed that even though the provisions of the
       Hindu Succession Act, 1956 and the India Succession Act, 1925 in

--     terms would not apply to the Schedule Tribes, there general
       principles composing of justice, equity and fair play would apply
       to them. On this basis it has been proposed to tz.ke the view that F
       the Scheduled Tribe women would succeed to the estate of pater-
       nal parent, brother or husband as heirs by intestate succession an<l
       inherit the property in equal shares with the male heir with ab-
       solute rights as per the principles of the Hindu Succession Act as
,.
       also the indian Succession Act. However, much we may like the law
       to be so we regret our inablity to subscribe to the means .in achieving G
       such objective. If this be the route of return on the court's entering
        the thicket, it would follow a beeline for similar claims in diverse
        situations, not stopping at tribal definitions, and a deafending
        uproar to bring other systems of law in line with the Hindu
        Succession Act and the Indian Succession Act as models. Rules of        H
    404                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS                    (1997] 2 S.C.R.

A            succession are, indeed susceptible of providing differential treat-
             ment, not necesarily equal. Non-uniformities would not in all
             events violate Article 14. Judge-made amendments to provisions,
             over and above the available legislation, should nonnally be avoided.
             We are thus constrained to take this view, even though it may
             appear to be conservative for adopting a cautious approach, and
B
             the one proposed by our learned brother is, regretfully not accept-
             able to us."

           As a matter of fact the constitutionality of section 10 of the Indian
    Divorce Act was challenged by an aggrieved husband and this Court in
C   Anil Kuma; Mahsi v. Union of India and Another, [1994] 5 SCC 704 held
    as follows :-

                 "Taking into consideration the muscularly weaker physique of
             the woman, her general vulnerable physical and social condition
             and her defensive and non-aggressive nature and role particularly
D            in this country, the legislature can hardly be faulted if the said two
             grounds are made available to the wife and not to the husband for
             seeking dissolution of the marriage. For the same reasons, it can
             hardly be said that on that account the provisions of Section 10 of
             the Act are discriminatory as against the husband.
E
             We, therefore, find that there is no substance in the challenge by
             the petitioner-husband to the vires of the provisions of Section 10
             as being discriminatory against the husband and, therefore, viola-
             tive of Article 14 of the Constitution."

F        So far as the challenge to the Muslim women (Protection of Rights
    on Divorce) Act, 1986 is concerned, we understand that the said issue is
    pending before the Constitution Bench. We, therefore, do not see any
    reason to multiply proceedings in that behalf.

G         In the result and having regard to the earlier decisions of this Court
    noticed above, we decline to entertain. these writ petitions. Accordingly,
    these writ petitions are dismissed.

    B.K.M.                                                    Petitions dismissed.