Holding

The Competition Act, 2002 applies to Coal India Ltd and its subsidiary, making them subject to CCI jurisdiction and orders, including division, despite the Nationalisation Act.

Summary

Coal India Ltd (CIL) and its subsidiary Western Coalfields Ltd challenged the Competition Commission of India's (CCI) finding of abuse of dominant position, arguing that the Competition Act, 2002 does not apply to them because they are government companies created under the Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973 and are bound by Article 39(b) of the Constitution. The Supreme Court examined the definition of "enterprise" under s.2(h) of the Competition Act and held that government companies are persons within its ambit, and mining activities are not sovereign functions excluded by the Act. It further observed that s.19(4)(g) expressly includes monopolies created by statute and government companies as relevant factors for determining dominance, thereby bringing CIL within the Act's purview. The Court rejected the contention that s.28 of the Competition Act conflicts with the Nationalisation Act, noting the Act’s non‑obstante clause and Parliament’s intent to empower the CCI to order division of dominant enterprises. It also dismissed the argument that the parties are exempt under s.54, emphasizing that exemption must be expressly notified. Consequently, the appeal was dismissed and the Tribunal’s order upholding the CCI’s findings was affirmed.

Issues considered

The applicability of the Competition Act, 2002 to government companies created under the Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973.
Whether the definition of "enterprise" under s.2(h) excludes state‑owned monopolies engaged in mining.
Whether s.28 of the Competition Act, which authorises division of dominant enterprises, is inconsistent with s.32 of the Nationalisation Act.
Whether the parties can claim exemption from the Act under s.54 on the ground of public interest or sovereign functions.

Legislation cited

Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973s. 11, s. 28, s. 3, s. 32, s. 5
Companies Act, 1956s. 617
Competition Act, 2002s. 19(4), s. 28, s. 2(h), s. 2(i), s. 2(l), s. 2(r), s. 2(s), s. 2(t), s. 3, s. 4, s. 54, s. 60
Essential Commodities Act, 1955
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act, 1969s. 2(d), s. 3

Subjects

Competition LawAbuse of Dominant PositionEnterprise DefinitionGovernment CompanyNationalisation ActSection 28 Division PowerSection 54 ExemptionDirective PrinciplesArticle 39(b)Public Sector Monopoly

Judgment

[2023] 7 S.C.R. 827 827

COAL INDIA LIMITED AND ANR. A
v.
COMPETITION COMMISSION OF INDIA AND ANR.
(Civil Appeal No.2845 of 2017)
JUNE 15, 2023 B
[K. M. JOSEPH, B. V. NAGARATHNA AND AHSANUDDIN
AMANULLAH, JJ.]
Competition Law: Competition Act, 2002 – ss. 2(h), 19(4)(g)
and 28 – “Enterprise” – Applicability of the Act – Competition
Appellate Tribunal affirmed the findings recorded by the Competition C
Commission of India on various facets of abuse of dominant position
against the Coal India Limited and its subsidiary company – Whether
the Competition Act, 2002 applies to the appellants or not – Held:
The appellants are Government Companies – They were created to
take the place of the Central Government in the matter of supervising D
control and managing the affairs of the mines – The “Sovereign
function” of the Government has been excluded from the ambit of
s.2(h) – Carrying on business in mining, cannot be described as a
sovereign function – Hence, the appellant is a person within the
meaning of s.2(h) , therefore comes under the preview of
“enterprise” – The appellants being State, have a duty to keep E
uppermost, in their minds, the goal in Art.39(b) – There is nothing
in the definition which excludes a State monopoly which is even set
up to achieve the goals in Art.39(b) – When Parliament enacts laws,
it is deemed to be aware of all the existing laws – Parliament was
aware of the Nationalisation Act – Therefore the express reference F
in s.19(4)(g) of the Act to monopolies created under Statutes as
also Government Companies and Public Sector Units for determining
existence of dominant position indicates the intention of Parliament
to bring State Monopolies, Government Companies and Public
Sector units within the purview of the Act – No reason to hold that
a State Monopoly being run through the medium of a Government G
Company, even for attaining the goals in the Directive Principles,
will go outside the purview of the Act – As a matter of fact there may
be forums other than the CCI whereunder redress may be sought
against action of the appellants – But that by itself cannot result in
denial of access to a party complaining of contravention of a law
H
827
828 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A which is otherwise applicable – The appellants cannot resist the
imposition of standards of fairness and the duty to avoid
discriminatory practices when a specialized forum has been created
by Parliament under the Act – No merit in the contention of the
appellants that the Act will not apply to the appellants for the reason
that the appellants are governed by the Nationalisation Act and
B
that Nationalisation Act cannot be reconciled with the Competition
Act – The Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973 – ss. 5, 11, 28
and 32 – Constitution of India – Art. 39 (b).
Competition Act, 2002 – s.28 – The Coal Mines
(Nationalisation) Act, 1973 – s.32 – Conflict between s.28 of the
C Competition Act, and s.32 of the Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act
– Under s.32 of the Nationalisation Act, the mining companies
cannot be wound up – This stands in contrast to s.28 of the Act
which empowers the CCI to divide enterprises abusing dominant
position including adjustment of contracts, formation of winding
D up of enterprises among other things – Held: Parliament has
authored both the Act – There is no question of lack of legislative
competence – The words of s.28 of the Competition Act do not admit
of reading down the same – If s.28 of the Competition Act is evoked
and a direction is given to order division, it would be inconsistent
with the provisions of the Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act – It is
E made apparent by way of abundant caution in s.28(1), that all that
the CCI could order would be notwithstanding anything contained
in any other law for the time being in force – Parliament has
intended, in order to ensure the proper implementation of the Act,
confer power to order division of an enterprise enjoying dominant
F power – This would include the appellants as well.
Competition Act, 2002: ss. 2(r), 2(s), 2(t), 3, 4, 19 – Anti
Competitive Agreements – Abuse of Dominant Position – Historical
Background of the Act – Scheme and Provisions of the Act –
Discussed.
G Competition Act, 2002: ss. 18, 26, 27, 33, 36 and 41 –
Competition Commission of India – Director General – Power and
Duties – Discussed.
The Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973 – ss. 3, 4, 5 and
11 –Preamble and Object – Discussed.
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 829
OF INDIA

Word and Phrases: Constitution of India – Art.39 (b) – A
“Common Good” – The expression ‘common good’ in Art.39(b) in a
Benthamite sense involves achieving the highest good of the
maximum number of people – The meaning of the words ‘common
good’ may depend upon the times, the felt necessities, the direction
that the Nation wishes to take in the future, the socio-economic
B
condition of the different classes, the legal and Fundamental Rights
and also the Directive Principles themselves.
Report/Recommendation – Competition policy – Raghavan
Committee Report – Discussed.
Posting the appeal for being dealt on merits, the Court C
HELD:1. The Law-Giver has taken care to expressly
include even Departments of the Government separately within
the ambit of the word ‘enterprise’. Things could not be more
clear. The only activity of the Government, which has been
excluded from the scope of Section 2(h) of the Competition Act D
and therefore, the definition of the word ‘enterprise’ is any activity
relatable to the sovereign functions of the Government. Sovereign
functions would include, undoubtedly, all activities carried on by
the Departments of the Central Government, dealing with atomic
energy, currency, defense and space. The first appellant is not a
Department of the Government. It is a Government Company. E
In fact, what is excluded from the definition of the expression
‘enterprise’, is a Government Department carrying on
Government functions. Carrying on business in mining, cannot,
by any stretch of imagination, be described as a sovereign function.
There is nothing in the definition which excludes a State monopoly F
which is even set up to achieve the goals in Article 39(b) of the
Constitution. [Paras 80 and 81][868-G-H; 869-A-D]
2. The CCI is bound to take into consideration the factors
which have been indicated. Section 19(4) in fact, empowers the
CCI to have regard to “all” or “any” of the factors to arrive at G
the finding that an enterprise enjoys a dominant position or not.
Does not this mean that even a single factor being “any” factor
may form the foundation to find whether an enterprise enjoys
dominance? In a given case the answer would be in the affirmative.
Closer home in the facts, this Court finds that Section 19(4)(g)
H
830 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A declares that “monopoly” or “dominant position”, whether
acquired as a result of the Statute or by virtue of being a
Government Company or a Public Sector Undertaking or
otherwise, is to be a relevant factor. This is a clear indication that
far from excluding governmental bodies like a government
company, a public sector undertaking or a body under a Statute
B
from the purview of the Act, the lawgiver has evinced its intention
to include government companies, public sector companies and
bodies acquired under a Statute within the ambit of the Act. Now,
this Court proceeds on the basis that the appellant is a monopoly.
Further that it is a government company within the meaning of
C Section 5 of the Nationalisation Act. The interplay of Sections 3,
5 and 11 of the Nationalisation Act has the said inevitable effect.
A monopoly position under Section 19(4)(g) is treated essentially
as being in the league of a dominant position. [Para 86][870-F-H;
871-A-B]
D 3. Dealing with what would indeed constitute abuse of
dominant position as declared imperatively in Section 4(2), if one
takes Section 4(2)(a), it forbids imposing of unfair or
discriminatory condition in purchase or sale of goods and services
either directly or indirectly. It further likewise forbids an
imposition of an unfair or discriminatory price in purchase or sale
E including a predatory price of goods or service. The explanation
indicates that discriminatory conditions or prices, which may be
adopted to meet competition, is not within the scope of the
mischief. Next, under Section 4(2)(b), the Law-Giver has
proclaimed that there will be abuse of a dominant position by an
F enterprise or group if it limits or restricts production of goods or
provision of services or market therefor. [Para 92][873-G-H]
4. Parliament was aware of the Nationalisation Act. One
must also take into consideration the fact that coal stood removed
from the list of essential commodities under the Essential
G Commodities Act in February, 2007. The express reference in
Section 19(4)(g) of the Act to monopolies created under Statutes
as also Government Companies and Public Sector Units for
determining existence of dominant position, undoubtedly,
indicates the intention of Parliament to bring State Monopolies,
Government Companies and Public Sector units within the
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 831
OF INDIA

purview of the Act. The Raghavan Committee Report provides A
an invaluable input. [Para 97][877-C-D]
5. It is true that the actions of the appellants can be
challenged in proceedings in judicial review as contended by the
appellants. Equally, the appellants are justified in pointing out as
a matter of fact that there may be forums other than the CCI B
such as the Controller of Coal whereunder redress may be sought
against action of the appellants. But that by itself, cannot result
in denial of access to a party complaining of contravention of a
law which is otherwise applicable. It must also be remembered
that action can also be taken by the CCI suo motu. Such is the
width of the power vouchsafed for the authority under the Act. C
[Para 119][883-F-H]
6. It is clarified that it will be open to the appellant as the
State monopoly to take up all contentions to demonstrate that
there is no abuse of the dominant position. Be it differential pricing
or a decision to limit or restrict production, if it is part of national D
policy or based on Presidential Directives and the appellant raises
such a contention after bonafide following the Directives or policy
themselves, it may be a matter, which the CCI would have to
consider in deciding whether there is abuse of dominant position.
If the appellants answer the description of State in Article 36, E
then there is a continuing duty to pay obeisance to the Directive
Principles. The Act cannot result in transforming the appellants
into mere profit-making engines or require of them to be oblivious
to their obligations under the Constitution. But that cannot equally
mean that they can act with caprice, or unfairly or treat otherwise
similarly situated persons or things with discrimination. The F
matter must be considered on its own merits both in the appeal
as in all the transferred cases. In judicial review the appellants
would be held to the standard of fairness as also the duty not to
discriminate. The appellants cannot resist the imposition of
standards of fairness and the duty to avoid discriminatory practices G
when a specialized forum has been created by Parliament under
the Act where also apart from the CCI being an expert body, it
can seek and receive valuable inputs from experts and what is
more, the matter is preceded by the report of Director General
of Investigation. [Para 120][884-A-E]
H
832 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 7. Section 54 of the Act gives power to the Central
Government to exempt from the application of the Act or any
provision and for any period, which is specified in the Notification.
The ground for exemption can be security of the State or even
public interest. It is not as if the appellants, if there was a genuine
case made out for being taken outside the purview of the Act in
B public interest, the Government would be powerless. [Para
124][886-C-D]
8. There is no merit in the contention of the appellants that
the Act will not apply to the appellants for the reason that the
appellants are governed by the Nationalisation Act and that
C Nationalisation Act cannot be reconciled with the Act. This is
subject to the appellants having all the rights to defend their
actions under the law. [Para 125][886-D-E]
Tara Prasad Singh and Others v. Union of India and
Others 1980 (4) SCC 179 : [1980] 3 SCR 1042 and
D State of Karnataka and Another v. Shri Ranganatha
Reddy and Another (1977) 4 SCC 471 : [1978] 1 SCR
641- relied on.
In Re Gujarat Assembly Election matter (2002) 8 SCC
237 : [2002] 3 Suppl. SCR 366; Election Commission
E of India v. Ashok Kumar and Others (2000) 8 SCC 216
: [2000] 3 Suppl. SCR 34; Ashoka Smokeless Coal India
(P) Ltd. and Others v. Union of India and Others (2007)
2 SCC 640 : [2006] Suppl. SCR 954; Sanjeev Coke
Mfg. Co. v. Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. and Another (1983)
1 SCC 147 : [1983] 1 SCR 1000; Kasturi Lal Lakshmi
F Reddy and Others v. State of Jammu and Kashmir and
Another (1980) 4 SCC 1 : [1980] 3 SCR 1338;
Employees Provident Fund Commissioner v. Official
Liquidator of Esskay Pharmaceuticals Limited (2011)
10 SCC 727 : [2011] 15 SCR 336; Sanwarmal Kejriwal
v. Vishwa Coop. Housing Society Ltd. and Others (1990)
G
2 SCC 288 : [1990] 1 SCR 862; New Delhi Municipal
Council v. State of Punjab & others (1997) 7 SCC 339
: [1996] 10 Suppl. SCR 472; Waman Rao and Others
v. Union of India and Others (1981) 2 SCC 362 : [1981]
2 SCR 1; I.R Coelho (dead) by LRs v. State of T.N. (2007)
H 2 SCC 1 : [2007] 1 SCR 706; Khoday Distilleries Ltd.
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 833
OF INDIA

v. State of Karnataka & others (1995) 1 SCC 574 : A
[1994] 4 Suppl. SCR 477; Parag Ice & Oil Mills &
another v. Union of India (1978) 3 SCC 459 : [1978] 3
SCR 293; Ajaib Singh v. Sirhind Coop. Marketing-cum-
Processing Service Society Ltd. and another (1999) 6
SCC 82 : [1999] 2 SCR 505; Bangalore Water Supply
B
& Sewerage Board v. A. Rajappa (1978) 2 SCC 213 :
[1978] 3 SCR 207; N. Nagendra Rao & Co. v. State of
A.P. (1994) 6 SCC 205 : [1994] 3 Suppl. SCR 144;
Chairman, Railway Board and others v. Chandrima Das
(Mrs.) and others (2000) 2 SCC 465 : [2000] 1 SCR
480; Agricultural Produce Market Committee v. Ashok C
Harikuni and another (2000) 8 SCC 61 : [2000] 3
Suppl. SCR 379; Hasan Murtza v. State of Haryana
(2002) 3 SCC 1; Sanwarmal Kejriwal v. Vishwa Coop.
Housing Society Ltd. and Others (1990) 2 SCC 288 :
[1990] 1 SCR 862; State of Tamil Nadu and Others v.
D
L. Abu Kavur Bai and Others (1984) 1 SCC 515 : [1984]
1 SCR 725 and Samatha v. State of A.P. and others
(1997) 8 SCC 191 : [1997] 2 Suppl. SCR 305 – referred
to.
Case Law Reference
E
[2006] Suppl. SCR 954 referred to Para 7
[1983] 1 SCR 1000 referred to Para 7
[2002] 3 Suppl. SCR 366 referred to Para 8
[2000] 3 Suppl. SCR 34 referred to Para 8 F
[1980] 3 SCR 1338 referred to Para 8
[2011] 15 SCR 336 referred to Para 13
[1990] 1 SCR 862 referred to Para 13
[1996] 10 Suppl. SCR 472 referred to Para 16 G
[1981] 2 SCR 1 referred to Para 19
[2007] 1 SCR 706 referred to Para 19
[1994] 4 Suppl. SCR 477 referred to Para 19
H
834 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A [1978] 3 SCR 293 referred to Para 19
[1999] 2 SCR 505 referred to Para 20
[1978] 3 SCR 207 referred to Para 22
[1994] 3 Suppl. SCR 144 referred to Para 22
B [2000] 1 SCR 480 referred to Para 22
[2000]3 Suppl. SCR 379 referred to Para 22
(2002) 3 SCC 1 referred to Para 23
[1984] 1 SCR 725 referred to Para 113
C
[1980] 3 SCR 1042 relied on Para 113
[1978] 1 SCR 641 relied on Para 115
[1997] 2 Suppl. SCR 305 referred to Para 116
CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION : Civil Appeal No.2845
D Of 2017.
From the Judgment and Order dated 09.12.2016 of the Competition
Appellate Tribunal at New Delhi in Appeal No.80 of 2014.
With
E Contempt Petition (C) No.896 of 2018 In C.A. No.2845 Of 2017
And T.C. (C) Nos.19, 20, 16-18, 21 Of 2023
N. Venkataraman, A.S.G., K K Venugopal, Maninder Singh, Ranjit
Kumar, Birendra Saraf, Sr. Advs., Ms. Sheena Taqui, Ms. Akansha Saini,
Mrs. Bina Gupta, Harman Sandhu, Ms. Shally Bhasin, Yaman Verma,
F Chaitanya Safaya, Prateek Gupta, Ms. Raveena Lalit, Abhishek Hazari,
Ms. Sanjana L.B., S. S. Shroff, Ajay Nandalike, Achyuth Ajithkumar,
Talha Abdul Rahman, Rishad Ahmed Chowdhury, Ms. Anuja Mishra, V.
Chandrashekara Bharathi, Ms. Shruti Shiv Kumar, Ms. Shruthi Shiv
Kumar, Ms. Amritha Chandramouli, Rahul Vijayakumar, Sakya Singha
Chaudhuri, Ms. Radhika Gupta, Amit Gautam, Matrugupta Mishra, Ms.
G Ishita Thakur, Ms. Ritika Singhal, Ms. Divya Roy, Prabhat Kaushik,
M.A. Venkata Subramanian, Nagarkatti Kartik Uday, M/s. D.S.K. Legal,
G. Saikumar, Samir Malik, Ms. Nikita Choukse, Akash Lamba, Advs.
for the appearing parties.

H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 835
OF INDIA

The Judgment of the Court was delivered by A
K. M. JOSEPH, J.
1. The Civil Appeal is directed against the Order passed by the
Competition Appellate Tribunal, New Delhi(hereinafter referred to as
‘Tribunal’), by which Order, the Tribunal affirmed the findings and
conclusion recorded by the CompetitionCommission of India (hereinafter B
referred to as ‘CCI’) on various facets of abuse of dominant position.
The abuse of dominant position was ascribed to the appellants. The
appeal was dismissed.
2. The second respondent had provided information to the CCI
which the CCI proceeded to consider and it found the abuse of dominant C
position by the appellants.
3. The appellants have filed Interlocutory Application, viz., I.A.
No. 66587 of 2017 being an application seeking permission to take
additional grounds. Parties exchanged pleadings in the interlocutory
application.We have allowed the application seeking permission to urge D
the new grounds.
4. When the matter came up on 16.09.2022 before a Bench of
two learned Judges, the Court felt that since modification of order dated
03.08.2017 was sought, it would be appropriate that these matters are
heard by a Bench of three learned Judges. It is, accordingly, that the E
matter stood posted before a Bench of three learned Judges.
5. The principal bone of contention of the appellants in the I.A.
66587 of 2017 appears to be that Coal India Limited, the first appellant
(hereinafter referred to as ‘CIL’) being a monopoly created by a statute
and what is more important, geared and duty bound to achieve the objects F
declared in Article 39(b) of the Constitution of India and the second
appellant,Western Coalfields Limited, a subsidiary company of the first
appellantcannot be bound by the Competition Act, 2002 (hereinafter
referred to as the ‘Act’). In other words, having regard to the very
object and purpose for which it was brought into being and the law
G
surrounding such a body, applying the Act would produce such anomalous
results as would stultify the sublime goal enshrined in Article 39(b) as
also the statute under which CIL witnessed its birth. Since it was found
that there were proceedings pendingbefore the Commission/Tribunal
wherein a similar question would directly arise,transfer petitionswere
filed to call for such proceedings to this Court. It is hence, that the H
836 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A Transfer petitions which we are dealing with came to be allowed. This is
however, on the understanding that the Court would not go into the merits
of the individual cases but would confine itself to ruling on the question
of law raised by the appellants, viz., the applicability of the Act to them.
6. We have heard Shri K.K. Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel,
B ably assisted by Shri Yaman Verma, learned Counsel. Shri Maninder
Singh, learned Senior Counsel, also appears on behalf of the appellant.
Also, we have heard Shri N.Venkataraman, learned Additional Solicitor
General, on behalf of CCI and Shri Ranjit Kumar, learned Senior Counsel,
appearing on behalf of the second respondent in the Appeal/Application.
We have further heard learned Counsel appearing in the transferred
C cases.
SUBMISSIONS OF THE APPELLANTS/APPLICANTS
7. Shri K. K. Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel, would submit
that the coal mines operated by the appellants pursuant to the provisions
D of the Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act, 1973 (hereinafter referred to as
the ‘Nationalisation Act’) would be wholly outside the purview of the
Act. This is for the reason that the very purpose and policy underlying
the Nationalization Act, was to monopolise the operation of the coal
mines and coal mining in the hands of the Central Government and its
agencies such as the appellants. It is not an ordinary monopoly. It is a
E monopoly created by the Nationalization Act; it is, having regard to the
need to immunize it from challenge, that it was accorded protection of
Article 31B of the Constitution of India; it has been inserted in the Ninth
Schedule to the Constitution; Article 39(b) of the Constitution of India
takes it out of the category of ordinary monopoly; this is for the reason
F that the State has been charged with the duty to bear in mind the principles
of ‘common good’ being secured by the ‘distribution of scarce resources’;
coal, with which mineral we are concerned with, is, indeed, a mineral of
the highest importance in the economic life of the nation; its equitable
distribution in the manner so as to secure the common good which is the
directive contained in Article 39(b) led to the creation of a statutorily
G mandated monopoly; when such is the thrust of the Nationalisation Act,
then, it is wholly inconceivable that the Act would still be applicable to
the appellants. It is pointed out, with reference to the Nationalisation
Act, that the superintendence of the mines vests with the Central
Government or with a corporate body or the company, which it may
H create. The first appellant is the holding company and there are subsidiary
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 837
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

companies under it. This is contemplated under the Nationalisation Act. A
The mantle of operating the monopoly therefore, fell on the appellants.
The appellants are State within the meaning of Article 12 of the
Constitution. Theycontinue to be charged with the duty to be guided by
the Directive Principles contained in Article 39(b). Learned Senior
Counsel would point out that the Act does not deal with a company like
B
the appellant. In other words, while there may be indication in Section
19(4)(g) of the Act that the fact that a body is a monopoly under the
statute may indicate the presence of dominant position, there is a subtle
distinction. Unlike an ordinary monopoly, a corporate body like the
appellant represents a case of a monopoly with the added and unique
feature that it is an ‘Article 39(b)’ monopoly.Such a monopoly is outside C
the purview of the Act. Reliance is placed on decisions of this Court to
emphasize the point that the Nationalization Act was enacted with a
view to give effect to the provision of Article 39(b) (See Ashoka
Smokeless Coal India (P) Ltd. and Others v. Union of India and
Others1 following Sanjeev Coke Mfg. Co. v. Bharat Coking Coal
D
Ltd. and Another2).
8. Learned Senior Counsel drew our attention to Sections 3 and
11 of the Nationalisation Act to contend that general superintendence,
direction, control and management of the affairs and business of a coal
mine,inter alia, as contained in Nationalisation Act, must be given the
widest interpretation. In this regard, reliance is placed by appellants on E
Judgments interpreting similar words in Article 324 of the Constitution
(See In Re Gujarat Assembly Election matter 3 and Election
Commission of India v. Ashok Kumar and Others4). Our attention is
drawn also to Article 31C of the Constitution for the proposition that a
law which gives effect to Article 39(b) or 39(c) cannot be impugned on F
the ground that it is inconsistent with Articles 14 and 19 of the Constitution.
Such a law is to be treated as reasonable. On the other hand, if an action
is inconsistent or runs counter to the Directive Principles, it may,prima
facie, be brushed with the tarnish of it being unreasonable.(See Kasturi
Lal Lakshmi Reddy and Others v. State of Jammu and Kashmir and
Another5).It is further pointed out by the appellants that on a conspectus G

1
(2007) 2 SCC 640
2
(1983) 1 SCC 147
3
(2002) 8 SCC 237
4
(2000) 8 SCC 216
5
(1980) 4 SCC 1 H
838 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A of the Nationalisation Act and on placing it side-by-side with the provisions
of the Act, the divergence and the consequent anomalous results of
bringing the appellant under the Act, would clearly emerge. Our attention
is drawn to the long title of the Act. It is pointed out that the object of the
Act is to ensure freedom of trade. This is contrasted with a long title of
the Nationalisation Act which indicates that the Law-Giver intended to
B
vest ownership and control of the coal mines in the State so that the said
resource is so distributed as to best serve the common good. It is
contended that CIL does not operate in the commercial sphere. Great
emphasis is laid on the fact that out of 462 mines operated by CIL, 345
have suffered losses amounting to Rs.9,878 Crores in the year 2012-
C 2013. As part of its constitutional responsibility, it engages 51 per cent of
its manpower which is about 1,80,726 persons in such mines. Despite
the fact that these underground mines only contribute 9 per cent to its
total coal production, it is emphasized that the appellants are not free as
a private player to lay off its employees.
D 9. Section 4(2)(a) of the Act prohibits unfair and discriminatory
price fixation or conditions for the sale or purchase of goods or services.
It is submitted that the Court may bear in mind that price fixation of
coal,as far as the appellants and the coal companies under it is concerned,
it is based on the Constitutional mandate under Article 39(b) which may
be inconsistent with market principles.
E
10. Under the Nationalisation Act as much as under Article 39(b),
the appellants may have to follow differential pricing mechanism to
encourage captive coal production. Applying the Act would adversely
affect pursing such a differential pricing mechanism. This again would
defeat the object underlying the Nationalization Act.
F
11. Next, the point of contrast consists of Section 4(2)(b) declaring
it to be an abuse of the dominant position where an enterprise limits or
restricts production of goods, provision of services or market. The impact
ofthe provisions would have on policy decisions taken by the Ministry of
Coal to encourage certain industries through a coal supply and pricing
G mechanism is emphasized. As an illustration, it is pointed out that the
Ministry of Coal takes action to encourage growth in backward areas
by allocating more coal supply. If such policy or actions thereunder are
to be tested on the anvil of Section 4(2)(b) of the Act, it may not pass
muster. This again would undermine the object of the Nationalisation
H Act and what is more, the wholesome principle enshrined in Article 39(b).
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 839
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

Section 3 of the Nationalisation Act, it is next pointed out, vests the A
ownership of the coal mines in the Central Government. However, under
Section 19 the CCI is obliged to take into consideration the monopoly
position whether controlled by the Government or not, as a factor to
determine the dominant position.
12. Next, it is contended that Section 27(a) of the Act, clothes the B
CCI with the power to order the cessation of abuse. This would be
inconsistent with the appellants pursuing welfare policy in relation to
pricing and distribution of coal.Under Section 32 of the Nationalisation
Act, the mining companies cannot be wound up. This stands in contrast
to Section 28 of the Act which empowers the CCI to divide enterprises
abusing dominant position including adjustment of contracts, formation C
of winding up of enterprises among other things.
13. Next, it is pointed out that Section 28 of the Nationalisation
Act declares that the provisions of the said Act would prevail
notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other
law in force, inter alia. (Reliance is placed on the Judgments of this D
Court in Employees Provident Fund Commissioner v. Official
Liquidatorof Esskay Pharmaceuticals Limited6 as also Sanwarmal
Kejriwal v. Vishwa Coop. Housing Society Ltd. and Others7). Section
60 of the Act, which declares that the provisions of the Act shall have
effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any E
other law for the time being in force, may not assist the second respondent
or the CCI in the stand that a Nationalisation Act must make way for the
operation of the Act on its own terms.It is contended that the appellants
even if they constituted a monopoly, they cannot act independently of
Presidential Directives, which are binding on them. The policy framed
by the Central Government must be mandatorily followed. This brings F
about an inevitable clash between the actions of the appellant with the
requirements which are stipulated in the Act. The appellants are not to
be driven by a profit motive. The appellants are the extended arms of
the welfare State. The activities of the appellantsare not any ordinary
commercial activities. They must not be so perceived when a complaint G
of abuse of dominant position is considered under Section 4 of the Act.
The mines in question were cost plus mines operated by the appellants
to ensure more availability of coal. They may lose their viability if they
are operated at notified prices.
6
(2011) 10 SCC 727
7
(1990) 2 SCC 288 H
840 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 14. Shri K. K. Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel, would submit
that the actions of the appellants are susceptible to judicial review in
proceedings under Article 226 or even Article 32. It is, infact, pointed
out there are other forums such as the Coal Controller wherein complaints
of the nature, viz., quality of coal as for illustration could be ventilated.
Subjecting the appellants to the provisions of the Act is wholly unjustified.
B
SUBMISSIONS OF THE RESPONDENTS
15. Per contra, the learned Additional Solicitor General on behalf
of the CCI,stoutly contended that the Act, indeed, applies inspite of the
non-obstante clause contained in Section 28 of the Nationalisation Act.
C He would point out that the object of the Act is to bring out a paradigm
shift in the economic policy of the nation. There is no conflict between
the Nationalisation Act and the Act inkeeping with the changing times
and the imperative need to ensure the best economic interest of the
Nation. The Act was born after great deal of contemplation. A Committee
known as the Raghavan Committee, a high-level Committee, went into
D the issue relating to State monopoly as well. A perusal of the said Report
would indicate that it was realized that the operation of the State
monopolies did not conduce to secure the best interest of the Nation.
The State monopoly could not be allowed to operate in a state of
inefficiency. It had to set its house in order and pull up its socks. It was
E specifically contemplated that such State monopolies must fall in line
and operate in the midst of forces of competition. He would point out
that the Court should keep in mind that an examination of the merits of
the case would clearly indicate that the attempt of the appellants is to
wriggle out of the situation when its actions have been found to be violative
of the Act and the fine questions which have been raised do not actually
F even arise on the defense actually set up before the CCI. He poses the
question as to whether the appellants could justify the supply of
substandard goods and justify it on the high pedestal of a Constitutional
goal being imperiled if the same is questioned under the Act.
16. He would point out that there is no challenge mounted to the
G vires of the Act. There is no scope for reading down the law in the
absence of the challenge. He also relied upon the Judgment of this Court
in the New Delhi Municipal Council v. State of Punjab &others8 to
contend that when the instrumentality of the State proceeds to enter the
8
(1997) 7 SCC 339
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 841
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

commercial field and is carrying on a business activity, it cannot claim A
immunity from the laws of the land. Though the said case was delivered
in the context of Article 286, he would submit that the principle is apposite.
17. It is submitted that the Act provides for a detailed procedure
where information is received or it acts suo motu.Invariably,it calls for a
report by the investigation wing. The Constitution of the CCI is sufficient B
safeguard as it is composed of people who are experts in various branches
of knowledge. Complaints such as abuse of dominant position are gone
into at great length, full opportunity is given to the persons concerned to
place their objections. It is only when a clear case of abuse of dominant
position, inter alia, is found established, that the CCI acts. He would
contend that the appellant is a government company within the meaning C
of Section 617 of the erstwhile Companies Act. He would point out that
it is not the law that such an entity can claim that its acts are placed
beyond the pale of scrutiny by reason of the fact that the law under
which they operate has been placed in the Ninth Schedule. He would
point out that there are three filters provided in the Act insofar as D
information relating to abuse of dominant position is concerned. In the
first place, an entity must answer the description of an enterprise as
contained in Section 2(h) of the Act. Once the said hurdle is crossed, the
CCI must ascertain whether the enterprise occupies a dominant position.
This is a matter which is covered in Section 19(4) of the Act. There are
several factors which are indicated. The rear is brought up by the E
residuary clause, viz., Section 19(4)(m) which provides for any other
factor which the Commission may consider relevant for the enquiry.
Thisis the second filter. In other words, it is not the abuse by any entity
but it must be abuse by an enterprise. Next, the enterprise must enjoy a
dominant position. As to what is a dominant position, has been detailed in F
the second explanation to Section 4(2) of the Act. Thus, the Commission
is governed by pre-determined and objective criteria to arrive at a finding
as to whether an enterprise occupies the dominant position both with
reference to the explanation provided in Section 4(2) as also the factors
which have been elaborately laid down in Section 19(4). It is after the
second filter is passed, that CCI must pass on to actually find whether G
there is abuse of its dominant position. Section 4(2) appears to provide
for what shall be abuse of dominant position. This being the scheme of
the Act, he contends that there may be no merit in the attempt of the
appellants to extricate themselves from a well thought out law provided
by the same Law-Giver. H
842 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 18. He would point out that initially coal was an essential
commodity under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955. When this Court
delivered the Judgment relied upon by the appellants as well, viz., Ashoka
Smokeless Coal India (P) Ltd. and Others v. Union of India and
Others9, coal was an essential commodity. The Court proceeded on the
said basis as well. However, in February, 2007, coal ceased to be an
B
essential commodity. Next, it is pointed out that the Nationalisation Act
itself, which is projected as the sheet anchor of the appellants entire
case was itself taken out from the Ninth Schedule in the year 2017. The
Nationalisation Act itself stands repealed. Therefore, he would point out
that the Court is being invited to pronounce on the basis of the ‘hallowed’
C position that the Nationalisation Act occupied,which itself is no longer
the case. (We must notice here that even in his opening submissions Shri
K. K. Venugopal, learned Senior Counsel, pointed out these developments.
However, it is his contention that the contracts with which this Court is
concerned all arose during the period of time when the Nationalisation
Act continued to grace the Ninth Schedule.)
D
19. Shri N. Venkataraman would point out again that the Court
may not lose sight of the fact that while thefirst appellant was fully
owned bythe Central Government in terms of its shareholding, after 2010,
following disinvestment, the Government shareholding has declined to
nearly 67 per cent. The balance of the shareholding is in private hands.
E Reliance is placed on the Judgment of this Court in Waman Rao and
Others v. Union of India and Others10. Considerable support is sought
to be drawn from the I.R Coelho (dead) by LRs v. State of T.N.11 for
the proposition that the immunity,laws enjoyed on their insertion in the
Ninth Schedule and the laws, which may be placedin the Ninth Schedule,
F stands considerably diluted. It is pointed out further with reference to
Judgment in Khoday Distilleries Ltd. v. State of Karnataka &others12
(paragraph-25) that Fundamental Rights are not absolute and they are
‘qualified Fundamental Rights’. Placing reliance on the Judgment in
Parag Ice& Oil Mills &anotherv. Union of India 13,it is pointed out
that unlike the law which may be protected under Article 31C, an order
G passed under the law may not be entitled to the same immunity. He
9
(2007) 2 SCC 640
10
(1981) 2 SCC 362
11
(2007) 2 SCC 1
12
(1995) 1 SCC 574
13
H (1978) 3 SCC 459
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 843
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

would caution the Court against adjudicating matters which may at best A
arise in the abstract. Questions must be answered when they arise on
facts.
20. He would contend that the Court may place an interpretation
as would advance the object of the law, which in this case, is to bring
about a transformation in the economy for the greater good of the B
common man (See in this regard Ajaib Singh v. Sirhind Coop.
Marketing-cum-Processing Service Society Ltd. and another14).
21. Shri Ranjit Kumar, learned Senior Counsel for the second
respondent, would point out that concept of common good so heavily
relied upon by the appellant, found in Article 39(b), must be interpreted C
as meaning the interest of the common man or the citizens. 80 per cent
of the coal is supplied by CIL to power companies. Second respondent
is a power company. The second respondent it is pointed out in fact
supplies power generated using coal to distribution companies
(represented, in fact, before us incidentally by the Maharashtra State
Agency), who, in turn, would finally supply power to the end consumer. D
The continual supply of coal and prompt performance of the contracts
and the reasonableness of the rates and quality of coal, in other words,
according to the second respondent, are related to the very common
good, which is emphasized by the appellants. He would further point out
that the Nationalisation Act was an expropriatory legislation. E
22. Next, he would point out that the predecessor enactment, viz.,
the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (hereinafter
referred to as MRTP Act),which stood repealed by the Act, may be
borne in mind. In the said Act, Section 3 clearly declared that, unless it
was otherwise notified, the MRTP Act would not apply to Government F
Agencies, as indicated therein. There is no such provision in the Act. He
drew our attention to Section 21A of the MRTP Act. Drawing inspiration
from the preamble to the Act, he emphasizes that the center stage of
attention in the Act is occupied by the consumer. Common good in other
words, must be associated with the good of the consumer. He drew our
attention to Section 54 of the Act which provides for power to exempt. G
He pointed out two notifications granting exemptions which were in favour
of rural regional banks. If the appellants legitimately wished to be taken
out of the purview of the Act, Section 54 holds the key and there is a
14
(1999) 6 SCC 82
H
844 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A lawful way. As long as there is no exemption, the Act applies to the
appellants. He would further contest the case of the appellants that the
appellants were running at a loss as a result of a number of mines running
at a loss.He would purport to provide figures to demonstrate that the
appellants have been making huge sums by way of profits andwhat is
more, making it over to the Government of India by way of dividend.
B
This is besides highlighting the dilution of the shareholding of the
Government of India.He would point out that there can be no claim by
the appellants that it is carrying on of any sovereign functions. In this
regard, he drew our attention to the following decisions. Bangalore
Water Supply & Sewerage Board v. A. Rajappa15 (See paragraphs-
C 163 and 168), N. Nagendra Rao & Co. v. State of A.P. 16 (See
paragraphs-9, 13, 19 and 25),Chairman, Railway Board and others v.
Chandrima Das(Mrs.) and others17(See paragraphs-38, 41 and 42)
and Agricultural Produce Market Committee v. Ashok Harikuni and
another18(See paragraphs-21 and 32).

D 23. Shri M. Mishra, learned Counsel appearing on behalf of one
of the parties in the Transferred Cases would support the respondents in
the Appeal. He would point out that in fact, he appears for the Maharashtra
Power Generation company. He would submit that the Court may bear
in mind that it is not as if the complaint against the appellants is being
voiced only by private players like the second respondent in the Appeal.
E The acts and omissions of the appellants is being objected to even by
public sector units such as his client. He would point out that under the
Electricity Act, 2003, the price of power is regulated by the Commission
under the said Act. The return on investment is highly regulated. Coal
constitutes 60-70 per cent of the costs. The price of coal has a bearing
on both the Consumer Price Index as also the Wholesale Price Index.
F He would submit that the report of the Director General under the Act
brings out the facts. Regarding the contention of the appellants that Writ
Courts can go into the question,it is pointed out that the cases may involve
facts, which are best dealt with by a Body like the CCI. He drew our
attention to the Judgment of this Court in Hasan Murtza v. State of
Haryana 19 and also Employees Provident Fund Commissioner v.
G
Official Liquidator20.Similar contention in support of the CCI and the
15
(1978) 2 SCC 213
16
(1994)6 SCC 205
17
(2000) 2 SCC 465
18
(2000) 8 SCC 61
19
(2002) 3 SCC 1
H 20
(2011) 10 SCC 727
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 845
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

second respondent has been voiced by the other respondents in the A
Transferred Cases.
24. In response to the submissions, Shri K.K Venugopal would
point out that it is not the case of the appellants that the appellant is
immune from all laws. He would further point out that the deletion of the
Nationalisation Act from the Ninth Schedule may not affect his contentions B
as the contracts in question relate to the period when the Nationalisation
Act was very much in the 9th Schedule. He would submit that as held in
Ashoka Smokeless Coal India (P) Ltd. and Others v. Union of India
and Others21,it is not as if the actions of the appellants are immune
from judicial review under Article 14. He would reiterate that an affected
party could seek redress in other forums. He would emphasize again C
that the Act and even the Raghavan Committee Report does not refer to
the species of public sector company which are geared to achieve the
common good under Article 39(b) and whose operation was immunized
from challenge by their insertion in the 9th Schedule at the relevant point
of time. The words in Article 39(b) “so distributed” is a continuing D
command to the State even after the Nationalisation Act was passed.
Thisis by way of countering the argument that with the NationalisationAct
all was done and it was aone-time affair.In other words, the command
of Article 39(b) is that the State shall bear in mind the common good
and, therefore, coal even if it is taken out of the Essential Commodities
Act, remains a material resource of the country, which must be distributed E
to achieve common good. He reiterates his contention in this regard. He
drew our attention to the distinction between an ordinary monopoly and
a State Monopoly, which is covered by Article 39(b). They are not birds
of the same feather, it is pointed out. In fact, Shri Yaman Verma, learned
Counsel ably supplemented by pointing to the constraints under which F
the appellants are bound to operate. He points out to the new coal policy
and the Presidential Directives. He would then point out that even if the
Act were found to be applicable, the Court may clarify that the appellants
could claim justification of their actions by relying on criteria, which they
are bound to follow. We must, here at this juncture, record that when we
queried Shri K. K. Venugopal, learned SeniorCounsel, as to whether he G
was claiming that the appellants were carrying on activities, which can
be described as sovereign functions, the answer was clear and forthright,
namely, that he was not having such a case.
21
(2007) 2 SCC 640
H
846 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 25. When the aspect about the Presidential Directives and the
policy of the Government was pointed out to the learned Additional
Solicitor General, N. Venkataraman, he would ask the question as to
what is it that prevents such a contention being raised is not pointed out.
The case must be decided on the basis of the actual contentions raised
and the relevant facts. He would exhort the Court that bearing in mind
B
the paramount need to allow the Act to succeed in its operation, the
Court may not allow the appellants to wriggle out of the well thought out
provisions of the Act which law will subserve the highest public interest.
He would submit that if a defenseis set up that bonafide adherence to
Presidential Directives is being made under the Act, it would be a matter
C which may have to engage the CCI.
ANALYSIS
26. As we have noticed the question, we are called upon to decide
is whether the Act applies to the appellants or not. It is necessary that
we tread carefully so that we skirt an incursion into the merits, which
D can be undertaken only when theAppeal is heard on merits.
27. Before we pass on to the Act, it may be necessary to look at
the law, which it repealed. The MRTP Act was enacted in the year
1969. It was intended to deal with monopolistic and restrictive trade
practices as the very long title suggests. It held sway till the Act repealed
E it in the year 2002. However, the Act itself was actually brought into
force in the year 2009. What is relevant is to notice some of the provisions
of the MRTP Act.
28. Section 2(d) of the Act, as substituted by Act 30 of 1982,
provided for definition of the words ‘dominant undertaking’. The definition
F itself appears to be fairly convoluted. The word ‘goods’ was, indeed,
defined as goods as defined in the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, and pertinently,
it included products mined in India, inter alia. The MRTP Act went on to
deal with concepts like associated persons, interconnected undertakings
and finally, the word ‘undertaking’.Sans the three explanations, the word
G ‘undertaking’ was contained in Section 2(v) and it read:
“2(v) “undertaking” means an enterprise which is, or has been, or
is proposed to be, engaged in the production, storage, supply,
distribution, acquisition or control of articles or goods, or the
provisions of services, of any kind, either directly or through one
or more of its units or divisions, whether such unit or division is
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 847
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

located at the same place where the undertaking is located or at a A
different place or at different places.
Explanation I.—In this clause,—
(a) “article” includes a new article and ”service” includes a new
service;
B
(b) “unit” or “division”, in relation to an undertaking includes,—
(i) a plant or factory established for the production, storage, supply,
distribution, acquisition or control of any article or goods;
(ii) any branch or office established for the provision of any
service. C
Explanation II.—For the purpose of this clause, a body corporate,
which is, or has been, engaged only in the business of acquiring,
holding, underwriting or dealing with shares, debentures or other
securities of any other body corporate shall be deemed to be an
undertaking. D
Explanation III.—For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared
that an investment company shall be deemed, for the purposes of
this Act, to be an undertaking;”
The MRTP Act also provided for definition of the words,
monopolistic trade practice as also, restrictive trade practices. E

29. Section 3 of the MRTP Act, read as follows:
“3. Act not to apply in certain cases.—Unless the Central
Government, by notification, otherwise directs, this Act shall not
apply to— F
(a) any undertaking owned or controlled by a Government
company,
(b) any undertaking owned or controlled by a Government,
(c) any undertaking owned or controlled by a corporation (not
G
being a company) established by or under any Central, Provincial
or State Act,
(d) any trade union or other association of workmen or employees
formed for their own reasonable protection as such workmen or
employees,
H
848 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A (e) any undertaking engaged in an industry, the management of
which has been taken over by any person or body of persons in
pursuance of any authorisation made by the Central Government
under any law for the time being in force,
(f) any undertaking owned by a co-operative society formed and
B registered under any Central, Provincial or State Act relating to
co-operative societies,
(g) any financial institution.
Explanation.—In determining, for the purpose of clause (c),
whether or not any undertaking is owned or controlled by a
C corporation, the shares held by financial institutions shall not be
taken into account.”
30. In other words, inter alia, the provisions of the said Act did not
apply to an undertaking owned or controlled by a government company
or any undertaking owned or controlled by a corporation (not being a
D company established by or under a central, provisional or State Act)
unless it was expressly made applicable by a notification. It also did not
apply to any undertaking, the management of which was taken over by
any person or body of persons in pursuance of any authorization made
by the Central Government under any law enforced for the time being in
E force [Clause (e)]. Conspicuous by its absence, is any such provision in
the Act.
31. The CollieryControl Order came to be passed in the year
1945 under the Rules. It is the said Order,which came to be continued
under the Essential Commodities Act. The Coal Controller controlled
F the quality and quantity as noticed in Ashoka Smokeless Coal India
(P) Ltd. and Others22.Considering its vital importance, it became the
only mineral which was nationalized in terms of the CokingCoal Mines
Nationalization Act, 1972 and the Coal Mines Nationalisation Act 1973.
The Colliery Control Order 1945 was repealed and replaced by the
Colliery Collar Control Order 2000 w.e.f. 01.01.2000.
G
32. The Preamble to the Nationalisation Act reads as follows:
“An Act to provide for the acquisition and transfer of the right,
title and interest of the owners in respect of the coal mines specified
22
Ashoka Smokeless Coal India (P) Ltd. and Others v. Union of India and Others
H (2007) 2 SCC 640
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 849
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

in the Schedule with a view to re-organising and reconstructing A
such coal mines so as to ensure the rational, co-ordinated and
scientific development and utilisation of coal resources consistent
with the growing requirements of the country, in order that the
ownership and control of such resources are vested in the State
and thereby so distributed as best to subserve the common good,
B
and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”
33. Section 3(1) of the Nationalisation Act reads as follows:
“3. Acquisition of rights of owners in respect of coal mines.—(1)
On the appointed day, the right, title and interest of the owners in
relation to the coal mines specified in the Schedule shall stand C
transferred to, and shall vest absolutely in, the Central Government
free from all incumbrances.”
34. It came to be amended by the Coal Mines (Nationalisation)
Amendment Act, 67 of 1976. There was subsequent amendment, viz.,
Act 47 of 1993 dated 09.06.2003. After the amendment, Section 3(3) D
reads:
“3(3) On and from the commencement of section 3 of the Coal
Mines (Nationalisation) Amendment Act, 1976 (67 of 1976),—
(a) no person, other than—
E
(i) the Central Government or a Government, company or a
corporation owned, managed or controlled by the Central
Government, or
(ii) a person to whom a sub-lease, referred to in the proviso to
clause (c), has been granted by any such Government, company
F
or corporation, or
(iii) a company engaged in— (1) the production of iron and steel,
(2) generation of power, (3) washing of coal obtained from a mine,
or (4) such other end use as the Central Government may, by
notification, specify, shall carry on coal mining operation, in India,
in any form; G

(b) excepting the mining leases granted before such
commencement in favour of the Government, company or
corporation, referred to in clause (a), and any sub-lease granted
by any such Government, company or corporation, all other mining
H
850 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A leases and sub-leases in force immediately before such
commencement, shall, in so far as they relate to the winning or
mining of coal, stand terminated;
(c) no lease for winning or mining coal shall be granted in favour
of any person other than the Government, company or corporation,
B referred to in clause (a):
Provided that the Government, company or corporation to whom
a lease for winning or mining coal has been granted may grant a
sub-lease to any person in any area on such terms and conditions
as may be specified in the instrument granting the sub-lease, if
C the Government, company or corporation is satisfied that—
(i) the reserves of coal in the area are in isolated small pockets or
are not sufficient for scientific and economical development in a
co-ordinated and integrated manner, and
(ii) the coal produced by the sub-lessee will not be required to be
D transported by rail.”
35. Under Section 4, the Central Government was to become the
lessee of the State Government when vesting took place under Section
3. Section 5 read as follows:
“5. Power of Central Government to direct vesting of rights in a
E
Government company.—
(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in sections 3 and 4, the
Central Government may, if it is satisfied that a Government
company is willing to comply, or has complied, with such terms
and conditions as that Government may think fit to impose, direct,
F
by an order in writing, that the right, title and interest of an owner
in relation to a coal mine referred to in section 3, shall, instead of
continuing to vest in the Central Government, vest in the
Government company either on the date of publication of the
direction or on such earlier or later date (not being a date earlier
G than the appointed day), as may be specified in the direction.
(2) Where the right, title and interest of an owner in relation to a
coal mine vest in a Government company under sub-section (1),
the Government company shall, on and from the date of such
vesting, be deemed to have become the lessee in relation to such
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 851
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

coal mine as if a mining lease in relation to the coal mine had been A
granted to the Government company and the period of such lease
shall be the entire period for which such lease could have been
granted under the Mineral Concession Rules; and all the rights
and liabilities of the Central Government in relation to such coal
mine shall, on and from the date of such vesting, be deemed to
B
have become the rights and liabilities, respectively, of the
Government company.
(3) The provisions of sub-section (2) of section 4 shall apply to a
lease which vests in a Government company as they apply to a
lease vested in the Central Government and references therein to
the “Central Government” shall be construed as references to C
the Government company.”
36. Section 11 is significant for the purpose of the case. It read:
“11. Management, etc., of coal mines.—(1) The general
superintendence, direction, control and management of the affairs D
and business of a coal mine, the right, title and interest of an owner
in relation to which have vested in the Central Government under
section 3, shall,— (a) in the case of a coal mine in relation to
which a direction has been made by the Central Government under
sub-section (1) of section 5, vest in the Government company
specified in such direction, or (b) in the case of a coal mine in E
relation to which no such direction has been made by the Central
Government, vest in one or more Custodians appointed by the
Central Government under sub-section (2),and thereupon the
Government company so specified or the Custodian so appointed,
as the case may be, shall be entitled to exercise all such powers F
and do all such things as the owner of the coal mine is authorised
to exercise and do. (2) The Central Government may appoint an
individual or a Government company as the Custodian of a coal
mine in relation to which no direction has been made by it under
sub-section (1) of section 5.”
G
37. Suffice it for the purpose of this case that we notice next
Section 28:
“28. Effect of this Act on other laws.- The provisions of this Act
shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith
contained in any other law for the time being in force or in any
H
852 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A instrument having effect by virtue of any law other than this Act,
or in any decree or order of any court, tribunal or other authority.”
38. Finally, we notice Section 32. It read as follows:
“32. No proceeding for the winding up of a mining company, the
right title and interest in relation to the coal mine owned by which
B have vested with Central Government called a government
company under this Act or for the appointment of a receiver in
respect of the business of the company, shall lie in any Court
except with the consent of the Central Government.”
39. The Nationalisation Act came to be inserted in the Ninth
C Schedule to the Constitution. It remained in the Ninth Schedule till it is
removed therefrom in the year 2017.
40. Article 31B of the Constitution of India reads as under:
“31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations Without prejudice
D to the generality of the provisions contained in Article 31A, none
of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor
any of the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be void, or ever
to have become void, on the ground that such Act, Regulation or
provision is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of
the rights conferred by, any provisions of this Part, and
E notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of any court or
tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts and Regulations
shall, subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal
or amend it, continue in force.”
41. Article 31C of the Constitution of India reads:
F
“31C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles
Notwithstanding anything contained in Article 13, no law giving
effect to the policy of the State towards securing all or any of the
principles laid down in Part IV shall be deemed to be void on the
ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any
G of the rights conferred by Article 14 or Article 19 and no law
containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy
shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does
not give effect to such policy: Provided that where such law is
made by the Legislature of a State, the provisions of this Article
shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been reserved for
H
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the consideration of the President, has received his assent Right A
to Constitutional Remedies.”
42. The working of the MRTP Act was found to be inadequate
particularly in the context of changes which happened not only in the
country but also on a larger scale.
43. A high-level Committee known as Raghavan Committee delved B
into the issues. It is, inter alia, stated in the Report as follows: “the object
of competition policy is to promote efficiency and maximize welfare. In
this context, the appropriate definition of welfare is the sum of consumer
surplus and producer’s surplus and also includes any taxes collected by
the Government.”(See paragraph-2.1.1) C
We notice the following observations as well:
“2.1.1 Competition policy is defined as “those Government
measures that directly affect the behaviour of enterprises and the
structure of industry” (Khemani, R.S. and Mark A. Dutz, 1996).
The objective of competition policy is to promote efficiency and D
maximize welfare. In this context the appropriate definition of
welfare is the sum of consumers’ surplus and producers’ surplus
and also includes any taxes collected by the Government.1[1] It
is well known that in the presence of competition, welfare
maximization is synonymous with allocative efficiency. Taxes are E
generally welfare-reducing.”
44. After referring to the reforms initiated in 1991 and dealing
with public sector, it is stated as follows:
“2.6.4 Public sector
F
In 1991, Government abolished the monopoly of the public sector
industries except those where security and strategic concerns still
dominated. These include arms and ammunition and allied defence
equipment, atomic energy and nuclear minerals and railway
transport. Major industries including iron and steel, heavy electrical
equipment, aircraft, air transport, shipbuilding, telecommunication G
equipment and electric power are now open for private sector
investments. A large number of loss-making public enterprises
were referred to the Board for Industrial and Financial
Reconstruction (BIFR). Essentially two different types of reforms
were envisaged: greater autonomy for public sector enterprises
and greater private sector ownership.” H
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A 45. We may next notice paragraph-2.8.5:
“2.8.5 Public Sector To a large extent, the imperative for
privatisation of the public sector has arisen from fiscal
considerations. From the point of view of economic efficiency
and competition policy, it is important that the public sector does
B not enjoy monopoly power and is subject to market disciplines
through competition. Most of the sectors where the public sector
operates have in recent years been opened up to entry by private
sector firms. However, as we have noted earlier, the public sector
is given preferential treatment in Government procurement. We
are of the view that the public sector should be exposed to
C competition and not given any preferential treatment.”
46. State Monopolies Policy is seen dealt with under paragraphs-
3.4.5 and 3.4.6. They read as follows:
“3.4.5 State Monopolies Policy State monopolies are not only a
D reality but are regarded by many countries as inevitable
instruments of public growth and public interest. While ideology
may have played some role in spurring the growth of State
monopolies, much of this increase can be attributed to the pragmatic
response to the prevailing milieu, which is frequently an outcome
of the historical past in different countries. A view shared by many
E is that State monopolies and public enterprises in India have played
a vital role in its developing process, have engineered growth in
critical core areas and have performed social obligations.
Nonetheless, there is also a recognition, consequent on the adverse
financial results and the resultant pumping of budgetary oxygen
F from the Government treasury to those enterprises, that there is
not only scope for their reformation but also for structural and
operational improvements. This recognition has led to the trend
towards privatising some of them. This is also a part of the general
process of liberalisation and deregulation. Privatisation involves
not only divestiture and sale of Government assets but also a gradual
G decline in the interventionist role played by them.
3.4.6 State monopolies may lead to certain harmful effects, anti-
thetical to the scheme of a modern Competition Policy. They are:
A. The dominant power enjoyed by State monopolies may be
abused because of Government patronage and support.
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B. Because of the said patronage, State monopolies may adopt A
policies which tantamount to restrictive trade practices. For
example, preference to public sector units in tenders and bids,
insistence on using public sector services for reimbursement from
Government (travelling allowance for Government officials).
C. State monopolies suffer from the schemes of administered B
prices, contrary to the spirit of Competition Policy.”
47. In paragraph-3.4.7, it is, inter alia, stated that in the interests
of the consumer the State Monopolies and Public Enterprises need to be
competitive in production of goods and service delivery. Thereafter, it is
stated: C
“3.4.7 It is well accepted that competition is a key to improving
the performance of State monopolies and public enterprises. The
oft-noted inefficiency of Government enterprises stems from their
isolation from effective competition (Aharoni, Yair, 1986). In the
interest of the consumers, State monopolies and public enterprises D
need to be competitive in the production and service delivery.
While Government should reserve the right to grant statutory
monopoly status to select public enterprises in the broad national
interest, it is desirable for the Government to always keep in mind
that de-regulation of statutory monopolies and privatisation are
likely to engender competition that would be healthy for the market E
and consumers.”
48. In the summary contained in paragraph-3.5.2, we only notice
the following:
“3.5.2 Summary F
xxx xxx xxx
6. Government should divest its shares and assets in State
monopolies and public enterprises and privatise them in all sectors
other than those subserving defence and security needs and
sovereign functions. All State monopolies and public enterprises G
will be under the surveillance of Competition Policy to prevent
monopolistic, restrictive and unfair trade practices on their part.”
49. Under the head, the Contours of Competition Policy, in
paragraphs-4.2.2 and 4.2.4, we notice the following:
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856 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A “4.2.2 Scope
State Monopolies and Government Procurement. In a number of
countries, Government enterprises are excluded from the purview
of the Competition Law. With the exception of Government entities
engaged in sovereign functions, there is no valid justification for
B such exclusion and all other Government enterprises should be
within the ambit of the law.
4.2.4 By the same logic, Government enterprises and departments
engaged in any sovereign function (like defence, law and order,
currency functions) may not be subjected to the rigours of
C Competition Law.”
(Emphasis supplied)
50. In paragraph-4.4.7, we notice the following:
“4.4.7. Before assessing whether an undertaking is dominant, it is
D important, as in the case of horizontal agreement, to determine what the
relevant market is. There are two dimensions to this – the product market
and the geographical market. On the demand side, the relevant product
market includes all such substitutes that the consumer would switch to,
if the price of the product relevant to the investigation were to increase.
From the supply side, this would include all producers who could, with
E their existing facilities, switch to the production of such substitute goods.
The geographical boundaries of the relevant market can be similarly
defined. Geographic dimension involves identification of the geographical
area within which competition takes place. Relevant geographic markets
could be local, national, international or occasionally even global, depending
F upon the facts in each case. Some factors relevant to geographic
dimension are consumption and shipment patterns, transportation costs,
perishability and existence of barriers to the shipment of products between
adjoining geographic areas. For example, in view of the high transportation
costs in cement, the relevant geographical market may be the region
close to the manufacturing facility.”
G
51. In the summary, we may notice paragraph-4.8.8, it is stated
as follows:
“4.8.8. Summary
1. The State Monopolies, Government procurement and foreign
H companies should be subject to the Competition Law. The Law
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 857
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

should cover all consumers who purchase goods or services, A
regardless of the purpose for which the purchase is made.
2. Bodies administering the various professions should use their
autonomy and privileges for regulating the standard and quality of
the profession and not to limit competition.
3. If quality and safety standards for goods and services are B
designed to prevent market access, such practices will constitute
abuse of dominance/exclusionary practices.
4. Certain anti-competitive practices should be presumed to be
illegal. Blatant price, quantity, bid and territory sharing agreements
and cartels should be presumed to be illegal. C

5. Abuse of dominance rather than dominance needs to be frowned
upon for which relevant market will be an important factor.
6. Predatory pricing will be treated as an abuse, only if it is indulged
in by a dominant undertaking. D
7. Exclusionary practices which create a barrier to new entrants
or force existing competitors out of the market will attract the
Competition Law.
8. Mergers beyond a threshold limit in terms of assets will require
pre-notification. If no reasoned order, prohibiting the merger is E
received within 90 days it should be deemed to have been approved.
In adjudicating a merger, potential efficiency losses from the
merger should be weighed against potential gains.”
52. It is following the said Report, that in the year 2002, the Act
came to be enacted. The Preamble to the Act reads: F
“An Act to provide, keeping in view of the economic development
of the country, for the establishment of a Commission to prevent
practices having adverse effect on competition, to promote and
sustain competition in markets, to protect the interests of
consumers and to ensure freedom of trade carried on by other G
participants in markets, in India, and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.”
53. We notice the scheme of the Act by taking note of the following
provisions.
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A 54. Section 2(h) defines the word ‘enterprise’:
“2(h) “enterprise” means a person or a department of the
Government, who or which is, or has been, engaged in any activity,
relating to the production, storage, supply, distribution, acquisition
or control of articles or goods, or the provision of services, of any
B kind, or in investment, or in the business of acquiring, holding,
underwriting or dealing with shares, debentures or other securities
of any other body corporate, either directly or through one or
more of its units or divisions or subsidiaries, whether such unit or
division or subsidiary is located at the same place where the
enterprise is located or at a different place or at different places,
C but does not include any activity of the Government relatable to
the sovereign functions of the Government including all activities
carried on by the departments of the Central Government dealing
with atomic energy, currency, defence and space.
Explanation.-For the purposes of this clause,—
D
(a) “activity” includes profession or occupation;
(b) “article” includes a new article and “service” includes a new
service;
(c) “unit” or “division”, in relation to an enterprise, includes
E
(i) a plant or factory established for the production, storage, supply,
distribution, acquisition or control of any article or goods;
(ii) any branch or office established for the provision of any
service;”
F 55. Section 2(i) defines the word ‘goods’:
“2(i) “goods” means goods as defined in the Sale of Goods Act,
1930 (8 of 1930) and includes—
(A) products manufactured, processed or mined;

G (B) debentures, stocks and shares after allotment;
(C) in relation to goods supplied, distributed or controlled in India,
goods imported into India;”
56. Section 2(l) defines the word ‘person’:
“2(l) “person” includes—
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COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 859
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

(i) an individual; A
(ii) a Hindu undivided family;
(iii) a company;
(iv) a firm;
(v) an association of persons or a body of individuals, whether B
incorporated or not, in India or outside India;
(vi) any corporation established by or under any Central, State or
Provincial Act or a Government company as defined in section
617 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956);
C
(vii) any body corporate incorporated by or under the laws of a
country outside India;
(viii) a co-operative society registered under any law relating to
co-operative societies;
(ix) a local authority; D
(x) every artificial juridical person, not falling within any of the
preceding sub-clauses;”
57. The words ‘relevant market’, ‘relevant geographical market’,
‘relevant product market’, are all separately defined:
E
“2(r) “relevant market” means the market which may be
determined by the commission with reference to the relevant
product market or the relevant geographic market or with
reference to both the markets;
2(s) “relevant geographic market” means a market comprising F
the area in which the conditions of competition for supply of goods
or provision of services or demand of goods or services are
distinctly homogenous and can be distinguished from the conditions
prevailing in the neighbouring areas;
2(t) “relevant product market” means a market comprising all
G
those products or services which are regarded as interchangeable
or substitutable by the consumer, by reason of characteristics of
the products or services, their prices and intended use;”
58. Section 3 prohibits anti-competitive agreements. They are
declared void.
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860 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 59. We are, in the main, concerned in this case, with Section 4.
Section 4 prohibits abuse of dominant position. Section 4 reads as follows:
“4. (1) No enterprise or group shall abuse its dominant position.
(2) There shall be an abuse of dominant position under sub-section
(1), if an enterprise or a group.—-
B
(a) directly or indirectly, imposes unfair or discriminatory—
(i) condition in purchase or sale of goods or service; or
(ii) price in purchase or sale (including predatory price) of goods
or service.
C
Explanation.— For the purposes of this clause, the unfair or
discriminatory condition in purchase or sale of goods or service
referred to in sub-clause (i) and unfair or discriminatory price in
purchase or sale of goods (including predatory price) or service
referred to in sub-clause (ii) shall not include such discriminatory
D condition or price which may be adopted to meet the competition;
or
(b) limits or restricts— (i) production of goods or provision of
services or market therefor; or (ii) technical or scientific
development relating to goods or services to the prejudice of
E consumers; or
(c) indulges in practice or practices resulting in denial of market
access in any manner; or
(d) makes conclusion of contracts subject to acceptance by other
parties of supplementary obligations which, by their nature or
F according to commercial usage, have no connection with the subject
of such contracts; or
(e) uses its dominant position in one relevant market to enter into,
or protect, other relevant market.

G Explanation.—For the purposes of this section, the expression—
(a) “dominant position” means a position of strength, enjoyed by
an enterprise, in the relevant market, in India, which enables it
to—
(i) operate independently of competitive forces prevailing in the
H relevant market; or
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 861
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

(ii) affect its competitors or consumers or the relevant market in A
its favour.
(b) “predatory price” means the sale of goods or provision of
services, at a. price which is below the cost, as may be determined
by regulations, of production of the goods or provision of services,
with a view to reduce competition or eliminate the competitors. B
(c)”group” shall have the same meaning as assigned to it in clause
(b) of the Explanation to section 5.”
60. Section 5 deals with regulation of combinations. At this stage,
we may only sum up and state that the law prohibits anti-competitive
agreements and also abuse of dominant position. It also regulates C
combinations as explained in Section 6. Chapter 3 deals with the
establishment of the CCI. Section 9 provides that the Selection Committee
for appointment of Members of the CCI, including Chairperson, will
include the Chief Justice of India or his nominee among others.
61. Section 8 speaks about the composition of the Commission. D
There must be a chairman and not less than two and not more than six
other members to be appointed by the Central Government.
62. Section 8(2) reads as follows:
“8(2) The Chairperson and every other Member shall be a person
E
of ability, integrity and standing and who has special knowledge
of, and such professional experience of not less than fifteen years
in, international trade, economics, business, commerce, law,
finance, accountancy, management, industry, public affairs or
competition matters, including competition law and policy, which
in the opinion of the Central Government, may be useful to the F
Commission.”
63. Section 17 reads as follows:
“17. (1) The Commission may appoint a Secretary and such
officers and other employees as it considers necessary for the
efficient performance of its functions under this Act. G

(2) The salaries and allowances payable to and other terms and
conditions of service of the Secretary and officers and other
employees of the Commission and the number of such officers
and other employees shall be such as may be prescribed.
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862 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A (3) The Commission may engage, in accordance with the procedure
specified by regulations, such number of experts and professionals
of integrity and outstanding ability, who have special knowledge
of, and experience in, economics, law, business or such other
disciplines related to competition, as it deems necessary to assist
the Commission in the discharge of its functions under this Act.”
B
64. The duties of the CCI are spelt out in Section 18. It reads as
follows:
“18. Subject to the provisions of this Act, it shall be the duty of the
Commission to eliminate practices having adverse effect on
C competition, promote and sustain competition, protect the interests
of consumers and ensure freedom of trade carried on by other
participants, in markets in India: Provided that the Commission
may, for the purpose of discharging its duties or performing its
functions under this Act, enter into any memorandum or
arrangement with the prior approval of the Central Government,
D with any agency of any foreign country.”
65. The aforesaid provisions indicate the width of the power lodged
with CCI to bring about the sweeping changes in the economy. Section
19 empowers the Commission to make inquiries into agreements which
are anti-competitive within the meaning of Section 3. More importantly,
E Section 19(4) deals with inquiring into the question as to whether an
enterprise enjoys a dominant position.
66. Being a crucial provision, we notice the same.
“19(4) The Commission shall, while inquiring whether an enterprise
F enjoys a dominant position or not under section 4, have due regard
to all or any of the following factors, namely:—
(a) market share of the enterprise;
(b) size and resources of the enterprise;
(c) size and importance of the competitors;
G
(d) economic power of the enterprise including commercial
advantages over competitors;
(e) vertical integration of the enterprises or sale or service network
of such enterprises;
H (f) dependence of consumers on the enterprise;
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 863
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

(g) monopoly or dominant position whether acquired as a result of A
any statute or by virtue of being a Government company or a
public sector undertaking or otherwise;
(h) entry barriers including barriers such as regulatory barriers,
financial risk, high capital cost of entry, marketing entry barriers,
technical entry barriers, economies of scale, high cost of B
substitutable goods or service for consumers;
(i) countervailing buying power;
(j) market structure and size of market;
(k) social obligations and social costs; C
(l) relative advantage,by way of the contribution to the economic
development, by the enterprise enjoying a dominant position having
or likely to have an appreciable adverse effect on competition;
(m) any other factor which the Commission may consider relevant
for the inquiry.” D
67. Section 19(5) declares that for determining whether the market
constitutes a relevant market for the purpose of the Act,the CCI shall
have due regard to the relevant geographic market and relevant product
market.
68. Section 19(6) deals with the factors which are relevant for E
determining the relevant geographic market.
69. Section 19(7) deals with matters which are relevant for
determining the relevant product market.
70. Section 27 provides for orders which the CCI may pass after F
inquiring into agreement or abuse of dominant position:
“27. Where after inquiry the Commission finds that any agreement
referred to in section 3 or action of an enterprise in a dominant
position, is in contravention of section 3 or section 4, as the case
may be, it may pass all or any of the following orders, namely:— G
(a) direct any enterprise or association of enterprises or person or
association of persons, as the case may be, involved in such
agreement, or abuse of dominant position, to discontinue and not
to re-enter such agreement or discontinue such abuse of dominant
position, as the case may be;
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864 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A (b) impose such penalty, as it may deem fit which shall be not
more than ten percent of the average of the turnover for the last
three preceding financial years, upon each of such person or
enterprises which are parties to such agreements or abuse:
Provided that in case any agreement referred to in section 3 has
B been entered into by a cartel, the Commission may impose upon
each producer, seller, distributor, trader or service provider included
in that cartel, a penalty of up to three times of its profit for each
year of the continuance of such agreement or ten percent. of its
turnover for each year of the continuance of such agreement,
whichever is higher.
C
(c) Omitted by Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007
(d) direct that the agreements shall stand modified to the extent
and in the manner as may be specified in the order by the
Commission;
D (e) direct the enterprises concerned to abide by such other orders
as the Commission may pass and comply with the directions,
including payment of costs, if any;
(f) Omitted by Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007
(g) pass such other order or issue such directions as it may deem
E
fit.
Provided that while passing orders under this section, if the
Commission comes to a finding, that an enterprise in contravention
to section 3 or section 4 of the Act is a member of a group as
defined in clause (b) of the Explanation to section 5 of the Act,
F
and other members of such a group are also responsible for, or
have contributed to, such a contravention, then it may pass orders,
under this section, against such members of the group.”
71. Section 28 provides for power to order division of enterprise
enjoying dominant position.
G
72. The CCI is given power to pass interim orders in Section 33.
The CCI can regulate its procedure as provided in Section 36. Section
41 provides for the duty of the Director General. He is to assist the CCI
by investigating into any controversies. Penalties are contemplated under
the Act. An appeal is provided to the Tribunal and Section 53T provides
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for an appeal to the Supreme Court against the order of the Tribunal. A
Section 54 deals with the power to exempt. It reads:
“54. Power to exempt.— The Central Government may, by
notification, exempt from the application of this Act, or any
provision thereof, and for such period as it may specify in such
notification— B
(a) any class of enterprises if such exemption is necessary in the
interest of security of the State or public interest;
(b) any practice or agreement arising out of and in accordance
with any obligation assumed by India under any treaty, agreement
or convention with any other country or countries; C

(c) any enterprise which performs a sovereign function on behalf
of the Central Government or a State Government:
Provided that in case an enterprise is engaged in any activity
including the activity relatable to the sovereign functions of the D
Government, the Central Government may grant exemption only
in respect of activity relatable to the sovereign functions.”
73. Section 60 reads as follows:
“60. The provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding
anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the E
time being in force.”
74. We must proceed on the basis that there is no challenge to the
Act. This means that we must take the Act as it is and place an
interpretation on it as would be most suitable in accordance with well-
established principles. In other words, this is not a case where the Court F
has been invited to pronounce on the vires of the Act.
75. Coal continues to be an important and scarce natural resource.
Nothing more is required to establish the same than the very lis over it.
It forms an important raw material in the production of vital final products.
Also, it forms a kind of fuel, which drives power plants. A monopoly, G
undoubtedly, stood created by the Nationalisation Act. The mines, which
were the subject matter of the Act, stood vested with the Central
Government. The first appellant is a Government Company, which came
into being, as contemplated under Section 5 of the Nationalisation Act.
The appellant-Company operates the mines. It is tasked with the power
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866 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A and the duty to distribute coal. This attracts the Directive Principle
enshrined in Article 39(b). The said Directive Principle contemplates
that the ‘State’ should direct its policy towards securing that the ownership
and control of the ‘material resources’ are so ‘distributed’ so as to
‘subserve the common good’. The argument of the appellants is partly
based on the dictate of Article 31(B), which, together with the Ninth
B
Schedule, the insertion in which Schedule, immunizes laws from being
invalidated on the ground that they take away or abridge Fundamental
Rights. The Nationalisation Act was inserted in the Ninth Schedule on
10th August, 1975. We are not, in this case, called upon to sit in Judgment
over the insertion of the Nationalisation Act on the basis that it is violative
C of the basic structure of the Constitution in terms of what has been laid
down in I.R. Coelho (supra). We proceed on the basis, therefore, that
the Nationalisation Act was insulated by virtue of Article 31B. Equally,
we proceed on the basis that it can be treated as a law giving effect to
the policy of the State towards securing the principles enshrined in Article
39(b).
D
76. Here we are not dealing with a plea to overturn the
Nationalisation Act on the score that it is violative of any of the
Fundamental Rights. The Nationalisation Act was enacted to vest in the
Central Government, the rights of the lessees in the coal mines so that
they could be operated so as to ensure the rational, coordinated and
E scientific development and utilization of the coal resources consistent
with the growing requirements of the country. The Preamble clearly
indicates that the Law-Giver had in mind the goal in Article 39(b), viz.,
acquiring ownership over coal mines so that coal mined from the mines
could be so distributed so that common good was best subserved. The
F Statement of Objects and Reasons of Act 67 of 1976, by which the
Nationalisation Act was amended, indicated that after the nationalisation
took place, persons holding mining leases took to unauthorized mining
and in a most reckless and unscientific manner. This was noted to be
without bearing in mind considerations of conservation, safety and the
welfare of the workers. A valuable national asset was being destroyed.
G There were safety concerns. Large profits were being reaped but by
paying very low wages to the workers. All privately held coal leases
were brought under the umbrella of the Nationalisation Act except those
held by privately owned steel companies. The Nationalisation Act came
to be again amended by Act 22 of 1978. Thereafter, again it was amended
H by Act 57 of 1986 and finally by Act 47 of 1993. Suffice it to notice that
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 867
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with the commencement of the Coal Mines Nationalisation (Amendment) A
Act, 1976 on 29.04.1976, carrying on a coal mining operation or leasing
for mining coal by any private party, was prohibited.
77. Section 11 of the Nationalisation Act contemplates that the
general superintendence, direction, control and management of the affairs
and business of a coal mine, where the right of an owner, stood vested in B
the Central Government under Section 3, would stand vested in the
Government Company specified in terms of the direction made by the
Central Government under Section 5. The first appellant is a Government
Company, which was wholly owned by the Central Government and
was the Company contemplated under Section 5 and, therefore, the
general superintendence, direction, control and management of all the C
mines, ownership of which stood vested in the Central Government,
vested with the first appellant. The first appellant is the holding Company
and there are subsidiary companies. Reliance is placed on the Judgment
of this Court rendered in the context of Article 324 of the Constitution. It
is true that the said Article, which deals with the powers of the Election D
Commission of India, employs the words general superintendence,
direction and control of, inter alia, for the conduct of all elections to
Parliament and the State Legislatures, apart from elections to the Office
of the President and the Vice-President. It is, undoubtedly, true that this
Court has held that the words ‘superintendence, direction and control’,
are words of the widest import. It is subject to limitations, flowing from E
constitutional provisions, binding laws and directions, which may be issued
by the Courts.It is true that the Election Commission of India has been
clothed with the plenary jurisdiction. We must, no doubt, not lose sight of
the fact that Article 324 deals with one of the most important Constitutional
Functionaries. The importance of holding free and fair elections, cannot F
be understated. Even, according to the appellants, the appellants are
bound to act in accordance with Presidential Directives and the extant
policy in the superintendence, control and management of the affairs of
the nationalized mines. It may not be appropriate to describe the power,
therefore, as fully akin to the powers that vests with the Election
Commission of India under Article 324. However, we do agree that G
subject to such directives and policy considerations, there is a large
measure of power with the appellants. The appellants cannot, however,
seek immunity from the operation of laws, which otherwise bind them.
In fact, Shri K.K. Venugopal did state at the bar that the appellants are
not impervious to the operation of laws, which would otherwise apply. H
868 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 78. Exception, however, is taken by the appellants to the
applicability of the Act. This objection is founded upon the inconsistencies
and consequent anomalous results, which would arise from the Act being
applied to the appellants. We have already captured the various perceived
inconsistencies in paragraphs-10-12.
B 79. Before we proceed to deal with the grievances of the appellants,
we must undertake a survey of the Act to ascertain, whether the Act, in
any manner, advances the case of the appellants. The Act has been
made in the year 2002 and it was not a pre-existing Statute. When the
National Act was made,central to the scheme of the Act, is the expression
‘enterprise’, as defined in Section 2(h) of the Act. Let us decode it. An
C ‘enterprise’ is defined as a person or a Department of the Government.
Let us pause here for a moment. The word ‘person’ has been defined in
Section 2(l) as including a company, a corporation established by or under
any Central, State or Provincial or a Government Company, as defined
in Section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956. We need not probe further.
D The appellant is a Government Company within the meaning of Section
617 of the Companies Act, 1956. Therefore, the appellant is a person
within the meaning of Section 2(h). The next limb of Section 2(h)
contemplates that the person is one, ‘who’ or ‘which is’.Being an artificial
person, the appropriate word is ‘which’. Therefore, the first appellant is
a person, which is or has been engaged in any activity. The activity must
E relate to the production, storage, supply, distribution, acquisition or control
of articles or goods. There can be an enterprise under Section 2(h)
equally, if the activity relates to the provision of services of any kind,
inter alia. We need not deal with the wide width of the other part of
Section 2(h). The word ‘goods’ has been defined in Section 2(i) to mean
F goods, as defined in Sale of Goods Act, 1930 and includes products
manufactured, processed or mined. There cannot be the slightest amount
of doubt that the appellant is a person, which is engaged in activity relating
to production, storage, supply, distribution and control of goods, as defined
in the Act. It may also be within the ambit of Section 2(h) in regard to
services it may provide, having regard to the wide words used in Section
G 2(h).
80. It is noteworthy that the Law-Giver has taken care to expressly
include even Departments of the Government separately within the ambit
of the word ‘enterprise’. Things could not be more clear. The only activity
of the Government, which has been excluded from the scope of Section
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COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 869
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

2(h) and therefore, the definition of the word ‘enterprise’ is any activity A
relatable to the sovereign functions of the Government. Sovereign
functions would include, undoubtedly, all activities carried on by the
Departments of the Central Government, dealing with atomic energy,
currency, defense and space.
81. As we have noted earlier on, in answer to a specific query, as B
to whether the appellants are carrying on any sovereign functions, both
Shri K.K. Venugopal and Shri Yaman Verma, would contend that they
are not carrying on any sovereign functions. This relieves the Court of
undertaking a discussion, which, even otherwise, may be unnecessary,
having regard to the nature of the function. The first appellant is not a
Department of the Government. It is a Government Company. In fact, C
what is excluded from the definition of the expression ‘enterprise’, is a
Government Department carrying on Government functions. Carrying
on business in mining, cannot, by any stretch of imagination, be described
as a sovereign function.There is nothing in the definition which excludes
a State monopoly which is even set up to achieve the goals in Article D
39(b) of the Constitution.
82. As mentioned earlier, the Act aims at tabooing anti-competitive
agreements and thereby promoting competition. It also prohibits abuse
of dominant position. What is prohibited is, however, abuse of dominant
position by an enterprise or a group. A group has been defined in the E
context of Section 5 which deals with regulation of combination. We
find that the appellant answers the description of an enterprise as defined.
83. When it comes to Section3, dealing with anti-competitive
agreements, it encompasses a prohibition of such agreements by not
merely enterprises or association of enterprises but by any person or F
association of persons.
84. Dealing with abuse of dominant position being the theme of
the lis, Section 4(1) declares that no enterprise or group shall abuse ‘its’
dominant position. What is dominant position? The second explanation
in Section 4(2) defines that dominant position for the purposes of Section G
4 to be ‘a position of strength enjoyed by an enterprise in the relevant
market in India’. Relevant market has been defined in Section 2(r) to
mean “the market which may be determined by the CCI with reference
to the relevant product market or the relevant geographic market or
with reference to both the markets”. The words, relevant product market
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870 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A has been defined in Section 2(t) as meaning “a market comprising all of
those products or services which are regarded as interchangeable or
substitutable by the consumer, by reason of characteristics of its products
or services, their prices and intended use”.Section 2(s) defines ‘relevant
geographic market’, as meaning “a market comprising the area in which
the conditions of competition for supply of goods or provision of services
B
or demand of goods or services are distinctly homogenous and can be
distinguished from the conditions prevailing in the neighbouring areas”.
Thus, the lawgiver has provided for a position of strength enjoyed by an
enterprise not in the vacuum. It is not based on any subjective criteria.
The question of dominant position must stand answered with reference
C to carefully thought-out objective norms, as aforesaid. Continuing with
the definition of the words‘dominant position’, it means a position of
strength enjoyed by the enterprise in the relevant market which in turn
involves adverting to the relevant geographic market or relevant product
market or both as defined and it should enable the enterprise to enjoy the
position of strength to operate independently of competitive forces
D
prevailing in the relevant market. Another test to find out whether the
enterprise enjoys a dominant position is to find out the said position with
reference to its ability to “affect its competitors or consumer or the
relevant market in its favour”.
85. The Act further expatiates and dwells on the method to find
E out dominant position. Section 19(4) enumerates the factors to be
considered. We have referred to Section 19(4)in paragraph-66.
86. The CCI is bound to take into consideration the factors which
have been indicated. Section 19(4) in fact, empowers the CCI to have
regard to “all” or “any” of the factors to arrive at the finding that an
F enterprise enjoys a dominant position or not. Does not this mean that
even a single factor being “any” factor may form the foundation to find
whether an enterprise enjoys dominance? We would think that in a given
case the answer would be in the affirmative. Closer home in the facts
we find that Section 19(4)(g) declares that “monopoly” or “dominant
G position”, whether acquired as a result of the Statute or by virtue of
being a Government Company or a Public Sector Undertaking or
otherwise,is to be a relevant factor. We will at once notice that this is a
clear indication that far from excluding governmental bodies like a
government company, a public sector undertaking or a body under a
Statute from the purview of the Act, the lawgiver has evinced its intention
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COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 871
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

to include government companies, public sector companies and bodies A
acquired under a Statute within the ambit of the Act. Now, we proceed
on the basis that the appellant is a monopoly. Further that it is a
government company within the meaning of Section 5 of the
Nationalisation Act. The interplay of Sections 3, 5 and 11 of the
Nationalisation Act has the said inevitable effect. A monopoly position
B
under Section 19 (4)(g) is treated essentially as being in the league of a
dominant position.
87. But does the inquiry end on an enterprise answering the
description of a monopoly or having a dominant position pertinent to
Section 19(4)(g)? In a given case, it may. On the other hand, in the facts,
it may provide the CCI with one part of a larger whole. Other factors C
whether expressly culled out or forming part of the inexhaustibly large
residuary clause, viz., Section 19(4)(m), may be projected to contend
that, in reality, despite its appearance, it is wholly but deceptive. In other
words, the CCI may be invited to have a cumulative view of all the
factors which are relevant in a given case. In fact, the learned Additional D
Solicitor General fairly states that the factors may be read as cumulative.
88. Apposite in the facts is Section 19(4)(k). It requires the CCI
to factor in social obligations and social cause. Equally, we may notice
Section 19(4)(l). It declares the relative advantage by way of contribution
to economic development having or likely to have an appreciable effect E
on competition to be a relevant factor. What we have deliberately omitted
and now supply are the following words to be found in Section 19(4)(l).
They are the words “by the enterprise enjoying the dominant position”.
Therefore, being found in a dominant position under Section 19(4)(g) is
only one of the factors. We do not intend to elaborate further on the
scope and impact of the other factors. It would all depend upon the facts F
of the individual case. Equally, we may only indicate, that, in particular,
countervailing buying power would be a relevant factor. Section 26
provides for the procedure for holding the inquiry employing the methods
declared in Section 19(4) to find the presence or absence of dominant
position. Section 26 contemplates the CCI acting on: G
a. Reference by the Central Government or a State Government
or a statutory authority.
b. Information given under Section 19 of the Act.
c. On its own motion.
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872 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 89. Section 26 contemplates that, in such conditions, if the CCI
forms an opinion that a prima facie case exists, then, it should direct the
Director General to cause an investigation into the matter. Under Section
26(2), the CCI may close the matter, if it finds that there exists no prima
facie case. The Director General is obliged to submit a report on his
findings. The CCI is to forward the report to the parties. The Director
B
General may recommend that there is no contravention of the Act. In
such an eventuality, the CCI is obliged to invite objections or suggestions
on the said report. The CCI may thereafter decide to close the matter
after considering the objections or it may order further investigation or
further inquiry by the Director General. The CCI may itself proceed
C with the further inquiry. Under Section 26(8), if the recommendation by
the Director General points to contravention of any of the provisions of
the Act, and the CCI is of the opinion that further inquiry is to be held, it
must hold an inquiry. Section 27 speaks about the orders that may be
passed in the case of anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominant
position. The orders which may be passed include a direction to discontinue
D
abuse of dominant position as found in the case of abuse of dominant
position. The CCI may impose penalty as provided therein. It can direct
modification of the agreement. It can also direct the enterprise to abide
by the orders that the CCI may pass. It has a residuary power to pass
any other order as is deemed fit. Section 28, no doubt, contemplates a
E division. Section 31 deals with orders that may be passed on certain
combinations. Chapter V deals with the duty of the Director General.
The Director General is provided with powers available to the CCI under
Section 36(2). We may notice in this regard that the CCI under Section
36 is to be guided by Principles of Natural Justice and subject to the
provisions of the Act and any of the Rules made by the Central
F
Government, the CCI is to have powers to regulate its own procedure.
Section 36(2) confers powers vested in a civil Court in regard to certain
matters on the CCI. Section 36(3) is significant. It reads:
“The Commission may call upon such experts, from the fields of
economics, commerce, accountancy, international trade or from
G any other discipline as it deems necessary, to assist the Commission
in the conduct of any inquiry by it.”
90. We have already noticed that the CCI itself is to consist of
persons of ability, integrity and standing who have special knowledge of
and such professional experience of not less than 15 years in international
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COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 873
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

trade, economics, business, commerce, law, finance, accountancy, A
management, industry, public affairs or competition matters including
competition law and policy. We notice this for the reason that both the
composition of the CCI and it being enabled to call for inputs from experts
would go a long way in assuring the Court that the decision-making
process would be meticulous, fair and informed. There is alsoa provision
B
for an appealto the Tribunal and further appeal to the Supreme Court.
91. As contended by the learned Additional Solicitor General in
the matter of proceeding under Section 4 read with Section 19 of the
Act, in the matter of abuse of dominant position, there are three stages.
There must be an enterprise as defined or a group as provided under
Section 5.Once it is so found, then, it must be inquired as to whether the C
said enterprise or group enjoys a dominant position. We have explained
how this is to be found with the aid of Sections 19(4) and the second
explanation to Section 4. After it is found that there is an enterprise or
group which enjoys a dominant position, the matter progresses to the
third stage. At this stage, the CCI would have to inquire in an appropriate D
case as to whether there is abuse of dominant position by the enterprise
or group. The third stage is embraced by Section 4 (2) of the Act. Under
Section 4(2), the law giver has declared certain acts or omissions to
constitute abuse of dominant position. We have already extracted the
provision. While on Section 4, we posed the question as to whether
Section 4(2), which declares that there shall be an abuse of dominant E
position, if the facts attract Clauses (a) to (e), is a species of a genus,
which genus is contained in Section 4(1). In other words, is Section 4(2)
exhaustive of abuse of dominant position prohibited under Section 4(1)
or is it only illustrative of what can constitute abuse of dominant position?
The learned Additional Solicitor General would submit that this question F
may not be gone into in the facts of this case. We agree with his request.
92. Dealing with what would indeed constitute abuse of dominant
position as declared imperatively in Section 4(2), if we take Section 4(2)(a),
it forbids imposing of unfair or discriminatory condition in purchase or
sale of goods and services either directly or indirectly. It further likewise G
forbids an imposition of an unfair or discriminatory price in purchase or
sale including a predatory price of goods or service. The explanation
indicates that discriminatory conditions or prices, which may be adopted
to meet competition, is not within the scope of the mischief. Next, under
Section 4(2)(b), the Law-Giver has proclaimed that there will be abuse
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874 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A of a dominant position by an enterprise or group if it limits or restricts
production of goods or provision of services or market therefor.
93. The appellants are Government Companies. They were brought
into being in the context of Sections 3 and 5 of the Nationalisation Act.
Undoubtedly, they were created to take the place of the Central
B Government in the matter of supervising control and managing the affairs
of the mines. Still further, and, more importantly, the Nationalisation Act
itself was intended to achieve the goals in Article 39(b) of the Constitution.
This means that the Nationalisation Act contemplated coal to be a material
resource and it was to be distributed so as to subserve common good.
The exclusive right in regard to the mines as also the power to manage
C and supervise the mines was vested with thefirstappellant company and
its subsidiaries. The ambit of the power is unquestionably wide. We
proceed on the basis that the appellants cannot be oblivious to its duty to
bear in mind the sublime goal in the Directive Principle,viz., “distribution”,
so as to subserve the ‘common good’. We agree further that the
D expression State for the purpose of Part IV of the Constitution is to be
understood with reference to its meaning in Article 12 contained in Part
III having regard to Article 36 of the Constitution. The appellants may
qualify as State for the purpose of Chapter IV if it fulfills the requirement
of State under Article 12. We bear in mind in this regard the argument of
the appellants that a remedy is open to a party against the appellant in
E proceedings under Article 226 or Article 32 of the Constitution. Thus,
the appellants also, even if the appellants areGovernment Companies
but being State,have a duty to keep uppermost, in their minds, the goal in
Article 39(b).The argument runs that it would require countenancing an
irreconcilable conflict between such a duty and the mandate of Section
F 4 (2) of the Act. To be more specific, the contention goes that the appellants
would have to follow the policy of the Government of India in regard to
coal, be it in the matter of pricing or any other matter. There may be
necessity to resort to differential pricing so as to encourage captive coal
production. If this is to be treated as being discriminatory or unfair within
the meaning of Section 4(2)(a), the question that is posed is how can the
G appellant company which is the product of the Nationalisation Act, a
monopoly under the same and obliged to observe the mandate of Article
39(b) achieve its undoubted goal or perform its unquestionable duty under
law. The answer of the respondents is that questions are being raised in
the abstract. The Act overrides all laws to the extent of their inconsistency
H with the Act. It is also contended that as far as the question relating to
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 875
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

compliance with Presidential Directives is concerned, if there is a bona A
fide adherence to Presidential Directives, it may pass muster. In fact,
Shri Matrugupta Mishra, learned Counsel, would point out that it is his
complaint that the appellant is not even following the Presidential
Directives. The respondents would point out that questions are being
raised in the air without there being foundation on facts. Next, coming to
B
the placing of restrictions or limits on the production of a mineral like
coal, there may be Doctrines like Public Trust and Intergenerational
Equity.
94. The State and its agencies may have to put a cap on production
of vital resources if they are not inexhaustible. A question may be raised
if a bona fide decision is taken by the appellants that ‘slaughter mining’ C
which leaves little for the future must be avoided, would it fall foul of
Section 4(2)(b) of the Act? Appellants also contended that as State, the
dictate of common good contained in Article 39(b) may require of it to
promote the interest of backward areas. The question posed is would it
be brushed with the paint of unfairness or discrimination which is D
anathema to the Act.
95. We have already noticed the report of the Raghavan
Committee. We have also perused the scheme of the Act. We have
culled out the consequences,which flow from the Nationalisation Act.
The economic condition of the country at the time of its independence in E
1947 stands in stark contrast to its condition at varying points of time
thereafter.In the initial stages, for understandable reasons, particularly,
bearing in mind the need for the State to be the prime mover of the
economy, huge investments by the State had to be made. Public sector
units became the arm for the State to realize its economic goal, which, at
the earlier point of time, was to consist of building up the requisite F
infrastructure. The public sector units fulfilled more roles than one. Not
only were the units to produce goods but they were also burdened with
the goal of providing employment. The economic policy of the State had
a distinct socialist flavour. No doubt, under the Five-YearPlans, what
was contemplated was, a mixed economy. The economy was highly G
regulated. Out of sheer necessity, perhaps, taxation had to be maintained
at high levels. From being a toddler, the economy slowly grew. As the
life of the nation progressed, the aspirations of its people, not unnaturally,
also expanded. The economic life of a nation can never be perceived in
isolation. No nation can remain unaffected by the changes inthestate of
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876 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A the world economy. Policies, which are suitable at a given point of time,are
not cast in stone. Each generation of people have the right as also the
duty to revisit economic policies which found favour with the past. The
present cannot put posterity in chains. Equally, the past cannot hold the
present hostage to ideas which would then degenerate intowhat was
once original and suitable into dogma which no longer can serve the
B
people.
96. The expression ‘common good’ in Article 39(b) in a Benthamite
sense involves achieving the highest good of the maximum number of
people.The meaning of the words ‘common good’ may depend upon the
times, the felt necessities, the direction that the Nation wishes to take in
C the future, the socio-economic condition of the different classes, the
legal and Fundamental Rights and also the Directive Principles
themselves. As far as the time dictated content of common good goes, it
simply means that ‘economics’ itself not being bound in chains,but it is a
dynamic concept.The attainment of common good would be dependent
D on the appreciation and understanding of a generation as to how economic
common good is best achieved. The debate between the advantages
and disadvantages of pursuing the policy of State intervention in economic
policy which emasculates private enterprise and competition has almost
reached its end. The advantages of a fearlessly competitive economy
have been realized by the Nation. There is a backdrop to it. In the year
E 1991, the Nation was in a manner of speaking compelled to revisit its
economic policy having regard to the precarious condition of its foreign
exchange reserves. The permit raj, which involved acute regulation of
economic activity by the State with all its attendant evils, cried out for
reforms. A slew of highly liberal reforms in 1991 set the stage for the
F Nation to make a paradigm shift. As discussed in the Raghavan
Committee Report, things moved further in the direction of attaining
faster economic growth. The Act is a measure which is intended to
achieve the same. The role which was envisaged for the public sector
company could not permit them to outlive their utility or abuse their unique
position. Disinvestment done in a proper manner was perceived as a
G solution. However, sans disinvestment, State Monopolies,Public Sector
Companies and Government Companies were expected to imbibe the
new economic philosophy. The novel idea, which permeates the Act,
would stand frustrated, in fact, if State monopolies, Government
Companies and Public Sector Units are left free to contravene the Act.
H Now that the Nation was more than 50 years old after it became a
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 877
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

Republic and it no longer was the infant it was, Parliament which best A
knows the needs of its people, felt that the time was ripe for ushering in
the wholesome idea of fair competition. Can it be said that free competition
as envisaged under the Act which involves avoidance of anti-competitive
agreements, abuse of dominant position and regulation of combinations
are against the common good? As to how common good is best served
B
is best understood by the representatives of the people in the democratic
form of Government. We must bear in mind the wholesome principle
that when Parliament enacts laws, it is deemed to be aware of all the
existing laws. Properly construed and operated fairly, the ‘Act’ would,
in other words,harmonise with common good. being its goal as well.
97. Therefore, we proceed on the basis that Parliament was aware C
of the Nationalisation Act. We must also take into consideration the fact
that coal stood removed from the list of essential commodities under the
Essential Commodities Act in February, 2007. The express reference in
Section 19(4)(g) of the Act to monopolies created under Statutes as also
Government Companies and Public Sector Units for determining existence D
of dominant position, undoubtedly, indicates the intention of Parliament
to bring State Monopolies, Government Companies and Public Sector
units within the purview of the Act. The Raghavan Committee Report
provides an invaluable input.
98. We may bear in mind that Government Departments are also E
expressly covered within the expression ‘enterprise’ under the Act. No
doubt, Departments discharging sovereign functions are excluded but
save those Government departments which are excluded,the Government
Departments being State, are equally obliged to bear in mind the Directive
Principles. The radical nature of the law contained in the Act has made
a perceptible departure from the erstwhile law contained in the MRTP F
Act. We have noticed Section 3 of the MRTP Act, which sought to
protect Government entities, as provided therein, from the reach of the
MRTP Act. The fact that Government Departments, which follow policies
of the Government, are expected to comply with the Act, has a deep
impact on the contentions of the appellant that they are outside of the G
purview of the Act. It would involve elevating the appellants to a status
above that of a Government Department to approve of the argument
that Article 39(b), would allow the appellantsto resist action under the
Act,when it does not allow the Government Department, under which,
in fact, the appellants operate to do so.
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878 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 99. What actually Article 31B and Article 31C purport to provide
for is constitutional immunity for the laws covered by the same from
challenge on the ground that they fall foul of the Fundamental Rights as
provided therein. In other words, the Courts cannot invalidate the laws
covered by the said Articles. We may agree with the appellants that
apart from providing protection to the laws, the Directive Principles would
B
continue to govern ‘State’, which would include its instrumentalities,
having regard to Article 12 read with Article 36. Here, we may notice
one aspect. Even where State and its instrumentalities are obliged to
follow the Directive Principles, it cannot, in their actions, act in an unfair
or discriminatory fashion. Even the appellants agree that judicial review,
C under Article 226, is permissible.
100. It is the appellants’ contention that Section 60 of the Act may
not avail the respondents to contend that the Nationalisation Act would
pale into insignificance and irrelevance when it cannot square with the
provisions of the Act. Section 28 of the Nationalisation Act, on the other
D hand, is set up to counter the argument. What is more, decisions of this
Court in Employees Provident Fund Commissioner v. Official
Liquidatorof Esskay Pharmaceuticals Limited 23 and Sanwarmal
Kejriwal v. Vishwa Coop. Housing Society Ltd. and Others 24are
enlisted in support. In Sanwarmal Kejriwal (supra), the question, which
was considered was, whether the protection under Section 15A of a
E rent control law would not be available to a person on whom a fictional
status of tenant was conferred. This was as Section 91 of the Maharashtra
Cooperative Society Act provided for eviction of a person from a flat.
The Court harmonized both the Acts by holding that in matters governed
by the earlier Rent Act, its provisions would continue to apply.
F 101. In Employees Provident Fund Commissioner (supra), the
question which arose was whether the priority given to the dues payable
by an employer under the employees under Section 11A of the Employees
Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 was subject to
Section 529A of the Companies Act, 1956. Under Section 529A, workers’
G dues and debts due to secured creditors was to be paid in priority to all
other debts. This Court held that the EPF Act was a social welfare
legislation. Section 11(2) of the EPF Act declared that any amount due
under the Act shall be the first charge in priority to all other debts including
23
(2011) 10 SCC 727
24
(1990) 2 SCC 288
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COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 879
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

debts due to a Bank which was found to be falling under the category of A
a secured creditor. It is in the context of the statutes and the object
sought to be achieved that this Court held that a non-obstante clause
contained in the later Act, viz., the Companies Act, 1956, would not
prevail. This Court held, in paragraphs-42 and 44, as follows:
“42. The argument of Shri Gaurav Agrawal that the non obstante B
clause contained in the subsequent legislation i.e. Section 529-
A(1) of the Companies Act should prevail over similar clause
contained in an earlier legislation i.e. Section 11(2) of the EPF
Act sounds attractive, but if the two provisions are read in the
light of the objects sought to be achieved by the legislature by
enacting the same, it is not possible to agree with the learned C
counsel. As noted earlier, the object of the amendment made in
the EPF Act by Act 40 of 1973 was to treat the dues payable by
the employer as first charge on the assets of the establishment
and to ensure that the same are recovered in priority to other
debts. As against this, the amendments made in the Companies D
Act in 1985 are intended to create a charge pari passu in favour
of the workmen on every security available to the secured
creditors of the company for recovery of their debts. There is
nothing in the language of Section 529-A which may give an
indication that the legislature wanted to create first charge in
respect of the workmen’s dues, as defined in Sections 529(3)(b) E
and 529-A and debts due to the secured creditors.
44. Another rule of interpretation of statutes is that if two special
enactments contain provisions which give an overriding effect to
the provisions contained therein, then the Court is required to
consider the purpose and the policy underlying the two Acts and F
the clear intendment conveyed by the language of the relevant
provisions.”
102. Apparently, the Court apart from noticing the objects sought
to be achieved by the enactment took into consideration the fact that
Section 529A of the Companies Act did not give any indication that the G
lawgiver wanted to create a first charge in respect of the preferred
creditors under the said provision whereas a first charge stood created
under the EPF Act.
103. In the context of Section 28 of the Nationalisation Act read
with the object of the Act and bearing in mind the scheme of the Act and H
880 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A the language employed as it is, we would think that the later enactment
must prevail. This is subject to what we shall hold hereinafter.
104. We do not think that the appellants have indicated any decision
of this Court which would establish the appellants’ case.
105. In Ashoka Smokeless Coal India (P) Ltd. v. Union of
B India25, the Court was concerned with the validity of the decision taken
by the first appellant herein to go in for e-auction of coal. It must be
noticed that the judgment was pronounced on 01.12.2006. At that time,
coal was an essential commodity under the Essential Commodities Act.
This aspect is echoed in the Judgment. The Court went on to hold that
the holding of e-auction did not amount to price fixation. In the course of
C
its Judgment, the Court, inter alia held:
“106. It may not be correct to say that any action which is not in
consonance with the provisions of Part IV of the Constitution
would be ultra vires but there cannot be any doubt whatsoever
that the principles contained therein would form a relevant
D consideration for determining a question in regard to price fixation
of an essential commodity. Directive principles of State policy
provide for a guidance to interpretation of fundamental rights of a
citizen as also the statutory rights.
109. It may be true that prices are required to be fixed having
E regard to the market forces. Demand and supply is a relevant
factor as regards fixation of the price. In a market governed by
free economy where competition is the buzzword, producers may
fix their own price. It is, however, difficult to give effect to the
constitutional obligations of a State and the principles leading to a
free economy at the same time. A level playing field is the key
F factor for invoking the new economy. Such a level playing field
can be achieved when there are a number of suppliers and when
there are competitors in the market enabling the consumer to
exercise choices for the purpose of procurement of goods. If the
policy of the open market is to be achieved the benefit of the
G consumer must be kept uppermost in mind by the State.”
106. In paragraph-111, the Court, inter alia, held as follows:
“111. The State when it exercises its power of price fixation in
relation to an essential commodity, has a different role to play.
25
(2007) 2 SCC 640
H
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 881
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

Object of such price fixation is to see that the ultimate consumers A
obtain the essential commodity at a fair price and for achieving
the said purpose the profit margin of the manufacturer/producer
may be kept at a bare minimum. The question as to how such fair
price is to be determined strictosensu does not arise in this case,
as would appear from the discussions made hereinafter, as here
the Central Government has not fixed any price. It left the matter B
to the coal companies. The coal companies in taking recourse to
e-auction also did not fix a price. They only took recourse to a
methodology by which the price of coal became variable. Its only
object was to see that maximum possible price of coal is obtained.
… .”
C
107. We may notice here that the observations were made at the
time when coal was an essential commodity. Coal ceased to be an
essential commodity after the date of the Judgment in February, 2007.
We are not for a moment holding that coal has ceased to be a vital
national resource. All that we are observing is that, the basis for the
observations in paragraph-111, stood removed. D
108. The Court went on to hold further:
“113. The State or a public sector undertaking plays an important
role in the society. It is expected of them that they would act
fairly and reasonably in all fields; even as a landlord of a tenanted
premises or in any other capacity. (See Baburao Shantaram E
More v. Bombay Housing Board [AIR 1954 SC 153 : 1954 SCR
572] SCR at p. 577, DwarkadasMarfatia& Sons v. Board of
Trustees of the Port of Bombay [(1989) 3 SCC 293 : (1989) 2
SCR 751] SCR at pp. 760, 762 and Pathumma v. State of Kerala
[(1978) 2 SCC 1 : (1978) 2 SCR 537] SCR at p. 545.)” F
109. Still further, we find that in paragraph-115, it has been held
that “coal companies are monopolies within the meaning of the provisions
of the Nationalisation Act”.
110. It is again observed in paragraph-118 that the first appellant
and its subsidiary company enjoyed the monopoly of production, G
distribution and sale thereof.
111. We may further notice that in paragraph-167, this Court held:
“167. In fact the decisions of this Court on price fixation also
point out that although a reasonable profit may be permissible,
profiteering would not be.” H
882 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 112. Finally, we find the following observations to be found in
paragraph-193:
“193. However, discussions made hereinbefore should not be taken
to lay down a law that the Central Government and for that matter
the coal companies cannot change their policy decision. They
B evidently can; but therefor there should be a public interest as
contradistinguished from a mere profit motive. Any change in the
policy decision for cogent and valid reasons is acceptable in law;
but such a change must take place only when it is necessary, and
upon undertaking of an exercise of separating the genuine
consumers of coal from the rest. If the coal companies intend to
C take any measure they may be free to do so. But the same must
satisfy the requirements of constitutional as also the statutory
schemes; even in relation to an existing scheme e.g. Open Sales
Schemes, indisputably the coal companies would be at liberty to
formulate the new policy which would meet the changed situation.
E-advertisement or e-tender would be welcome but then therefor
D a greater transparency should be maintained.
113. The appellants rely upon the judgment of this Court in State
of Tamil Nadu and Others v. L. Abu Kavur Bai and Others26 for the
proposition that the scheme of monopoly or nationalisation subservespublic
good. In the said case, the Court was dealing with a case of nationalisation
E of transport services. There can be no quarrel with the proposition that
the purpose of the Nationalisation Act was indeed to subserve the common
good as held in Tara Prasad Singh and Others v. Union of India and
Others27. The purpose of the vesting under the Nationalisation Act was
to distribute the resource to subserve the common good. (See paragraph-
32)
F
114. We may, in fact, notice the concern of the Court about coal
being not inexhaustible and the need for a wise and planned conservation
of the resources being expressed in paragraph-39. No doubt, all this was
at the time when the Nation was confronted with the condition of the
mines being what it was as brought out in the Statement of Objects.
G
115. We agree with the appellants and as held by this Court in
State of Karnataka and Another v. Shri Ranganatha Reddy and
Another28 that distribution is a word of wide meaning and it is covered
26
(1984)1 SCC 515
27
1980 (4) SCC 179
H 28
1977 (4) SCC 471
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 883
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

by Article 39(b) of the Constitution. It must be remembered that the A
Court had occasion to hold so by way of dealing with the argument that
nationalisation did not have a nexus with the word distribution.
116. The Judgment of this Court in Waman Rao and Others v.
Union of India and Others29 holds that laws passed to give effect to
Article 39(b) and 39(c) could not be found violative of Article 14. There B
cannot be any quarrel. We are, in this case, called upon to deal with the
case based on the actions taken by the appellant, which is a Government
Company based on its powers under the Nationalisation Act, being
challenged on the anvil of a later law made by Parliament, the validity of
which,relevantly is not under challenge.
C
117. Distribution of coal is intended to subserve common good
holds this Court in Samatha v. State of A.P. and others30. The content
of common good is itself not a static concept. It may take its hue from
the context and the times in which the matter falls for consideration by
the Court. If Parliament has intended that State monopolies even if it be
in the matter of distribution must come under the anvil of the new D
economic regime, it cannot be found flawed by the Court on the ground
that subjecting the State monopoly would detract from the common good
which the earlier Nationalisation Act when it was enacted, undoubtedly,
succeeded in subserving. We see no reason to hold that a State Monopoly
being run through the medium of a Government Company, even for E
attaining the goals in the Directive Principles, will go outside the purview
of the Act.
118. We have projected some of the concerns of the appellants in
the matter of the appellants being disabled to put up a justifiable defense
under Section 4 of the Act. F
119. It is true that the actions of the appellants can be challenged
in proceedings in judicial review as contended by the appellants. Equally,
the appellants are justified in pointing out as a matter of fact that there
may be forums other than the CCI such as the Controller of Coal
whereunder redress may be sought against action of the appellants.But G
that by itself, cannot result in denial of access to a party complaining of
contravention of a law which is otherwise applicable. It must also be
remembered that action can also be taken by the CCI suo motu. Such is
the width of the power vouchsafed for the authority under the Act.
29
(1981) 2 SCC 362
30
(1997) 8 SCC 191 H
884 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A 120. We would only clarify that it will be open to the appellant as
the State monopoly to take up all contentions to demonstrate that there
is no abuse of the dominant position. Be it differential pricing or a decision
to limit or restrict production, if it is part of national policy or based on
Presidential Directives and the appellant raises such a contention after
bonafidefollowing the Directives or policy themselves, it may be a matter,
B
which the CCI would have to consider in deciding whether there is abuse
of dominant position. If the appellants answer the description of State in
Article 36, then there is a continuing duty to pay obeisance to the Directive
Principles. The Act cannot result in transforming the appellants into mere
profit-making engines or require of them to be oblivious to their obligations
C under the Constitution. But that cannot equally mean that they can act
with caprice, or unfairly or treat otherwise similarly situated persons or
things with discrimination.We do not say more as the matter must be
considered on its own merits both in the appeal as in all the transferred
cases. We may only add that in judicial review the appellants would be
held to the standard of fairness as also the duty not to discriminate. The
D
appellants cannot resist the imposition of standards of fairness and the
duty to avoid discriminatory practices when a specialized forum has
been created by Parliament under the Act where also apart from the
CCI being an expert body, it can seek and receive valuable inputs from
experts and what is more, the matter is preceded by the report of Director
E General of Investigation.
CONFLICT BETWEEN SECTION 28 OF THE ACT AND
SECTION 32 OF THE NATIONALISATION ACT
121. Section 28 of the Competition Act, 2002, reads as follows:

F “28 (1) The Commission may, notwithstanding anything contained
in any other law for the time being in force, by order in writing,
direct division of an enterprise enjoying dominant position to ensure
that such enterprise does not abuse its dominant position. (2) In
particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
powers, the order referred to in sub-section (1) may provide for
G all or any of the following matters, namely:— (a) the transfer or
vesting of property, rights, liabilities or obligations; (b) the adjustment
of contracts either by discharge or reduction of any liability or
obligation or otherwise; (c) the creation, allotment, surrender or
cancellation of any shares, stocks or securities; 48(d) [Omitted
H by Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007] (e) the formation or
COAL INDIA LIMITED v. COMPETITION COMMISSION 885
OF INDIA [K. M. JOSEPH, J.]

winding up of an enterprise or the amendment of the memorandum A
of association or articles of association or any other instruments
regulating the business of any enterprise; (f) the extent to which,
and the circumstances in which, provisions of the order affecting
an enterprise may be altered by the enterprise and the registration
thereof; (g) any other matter which may be necessary to give
B
effect to the division of the enterprise. (3) Notwithstanding anything
contained in any other law for the time being in force or in any
contract or in any memorandum or articles of association, an officer
of a company who ceases to hold office as such in consequence
of the division of an enterprise shall not be entitled to claim any
compensation for such cesser.” C
122. It is, undoubtedly, true that there has been a vesting of rights
in regard to the mines under the Nationalisation Act. Still further, there
has been a vesting under Section 5 of the Nationalisation Act of the
rights of the lessee in thefirst appellant. Under Section 11 of the
Nationalisation Act, the power of general superintendence, direction, D
control and management of the vested minds, vest in the first appellant-
Company. If Section 28 of the Act is evoked and a direction is given to
order division, undoubtedly, it would be inconsistent with the provisions
of the Nationalisation Act.
123. There are certain salient features to be noticed. In the first E
place, there is no challenge to the Act. Secondly, taking the Act as it
plainly reads, the power to order division and, what is more, all the things
enumerated in Section 28(2), are clearly conferred on the CCI. Apart
from the general non-obstante Clause contained in Section 60 of the
Act, a noticeable feature about Section 28 of the Act is that it is made
even more clear, apparently, by way of abundant caution in Section 28(1), F
that all that the CCI could order would be notwithstanding anything
contained in any other law for the time being in force. Parliament has
authored both the Nationalisation Act as also the Act. There is no question
of lack of legislative competence. We are not called upon to pronounce
on the vires of the Act. There is absolutely no scope, at any rate, G
forreading down the provision even proceeding on the basis that an attempt
can be made even in the absence of the challenge. The words of the
provision do not admit of reading down the same. What follows is,
therefore, Parliament has intended, in order to ensure the proper
implementation of the Act,confer power to order division of an enterprise
H
886 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2023] 7 S.C.R.

A enjoying dominant power. This would include the appellants as well. We
must, no doubt, understand the provision to mean that it is not a power to
be exercised lightly. It is a special power intended to ensure prevention
of abuse of dominant position. The generality of the power is revealed in
Section 27. We incidentally notice that though there can be abuse of
dominant position by an enterprise and a group, which is sought to be
B
prohibited, Section 28 speaks about the division of an enterprise. Having
regard to the discussion above, we find no merit in the case sought to be
made for escaping from the net of the Act.
124. Section 54 of the Act gives power to the Central Government
to exempt from the application of the Act or any provision and for any
C period, which is specified in the Notification. The ground for exemption
can be security of the State or even public interest. It is not as if the
appellants, if there was a genuine case made out for being taken outside
the purview of the Act in public interest, the Government would be
powerless. We say no more.
D 125. We would hold that there is no merit in the contention of the
appellants that the Act will not apply to the appellantsfor the reason that
the appellants are governed by the Nationalisation Act and that
Nationalisation Act cannot be reconciled with the Act. This is subject to
the appellants having all the rights to defend their actions under the law
E and as indicated hereinbefore. The transferred cases shall be sent back
so that they may be dealt with on their own merits. The transferred
cases are disposed of.
126. Equally, the Appeal shall be posted for being dealt with on its
own merits. The interlocutory applications seeking interim relief in the
F pending Appeal shall be listed in the second week of July, 2023.The
contempt petition shall stand listed in the second week of July, 2023. The
Applications filed in connection with I.A. No. 66587 of 2017 shall stand
disposed of.

G Bibhuti Bhushan Bose Appeal posted for being dealt on merits.
(Assisted by : Shubhanshu Das, LCRA)

H