BINNY LTD. AND ANR.versusV. SADASIVAN AND ORS.

                        BINNY LTD. AND ANR.                                      A
                                       V.

                       V. SADASIVAN AND ORS.

                             AUGUST 8, 2005

   [K.G. BALAKRJSHNAN AND P. VENKATARAMA RED')!, JJ.]                            B

     Constitution of India 1950

    Article 226-Writ Remedy-Available against whom--Scope of Writ of
mandamus-Whether available against private party-Held, writ remedy
though pre-eminently a public law ren1edy is available against a private party
                                                                                 c
ifsuch party is discharging a public function-Scope ofremedy is determined
by the nature of the duty to be enforced, rather then the identity of the
authority against whom it is sought.

    Article 226-Writ jurisdiction-Mandamus-Held, contractual duties              D
cannot be enforced by writ of mandamus unless there is some public law
element and the contractual power is used for a public purpose.

      Article 226-Writ jurisdiction, scope of-Enforcement of contractual
duties-Services of respondents tern1inated as per the agreement of service
by giving one months salary-Respondents filed writ petition in the High          E
Court for a declaration that the service agreement and the order of
termination was illegal and void-Relief granted by the High Co .. rt-On
appeal, held, public policy principle cannot be applied in the matter of
employment of workers by private persons on the basis of contracts entered
into between them, unless a public element is involved-The decision of the       F
employers to terminate services of the employees cannot be said to have any
element of public policy and the remedy of the respondents is to seek
redressal in civil law or labour law-Further held, it was not appropriate
to construe those contracts of employment as being opposed to public policy
under section 23 of the Contract Act, 1872 as clause 9 provide for an inquiry
in case of termination for misconduct.
                                                                                 G

     Appellant company suspended operations of the mill as its premises
got flooded with rain water and issued orders of termination to the
respondents-employees as per clause 8 of their agreement of employment.
Respondents filed writ petition for a declaration that clause 8 of the           H
                                 421
    422                 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005) SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   agreement and order of termination thereunder was void and illegal and
    violative of section 23 of the Contract Act, 1872. They also contended that
    the service agreement was violative of Article 21 of the Constitution and
    the closure of the mill was against section 25 F and 25 N of the Industrial
    Disputes Act, 1947.

B       The High Court held that clause 8 of the agreement was void and
    unenforceable as being violative of section 23 of the Contract Act, 1872
    and gave the declaration sought for. Hence the present appeal by the
    appellant company.

C         The appellant company contended that :

         I. The jurisdiction under Article 226 could not be invoked against
    a private authority who was discharging its function on the basis of
    contract entered into by the employer and the employees.

D         2. As there was alternative efficacious remedy available to
    respondents, the discretionary jurisdiction under Article 226 could not be
    exercised. Remedy available to the workers was only ordinary civil
    litigation.

         3. As they were neither public authorities nor their action involved
E   public law element, remedy of writ of mandamus was not available.

        4. The High Court was wrong in invoking extraordinary jurisdiction
    under Article 226.

F         Allowing the appeal, the court

          HELD : 1.1. Superior Court's supervisory jurisdiction of judicial
    review is invoked by an aggrieved party in myriad cases. High Courts in
    India are empowered under Article 226 of the Constitution to exercise
    judicial review to correct administrative decisions and under this
G   jurisdiction High Court can issue to any person or authority, any direction
    or order or writs for enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part
    III of the Constitution for any other purpose. The jurisdiction conferred
    on the High Court under Article 226 is very wide. However, this is a
    public law remedy and is available against a body or person performing
H   public law function. [429-A-C]
                     BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIV AN                           423

     1.2 A writ of mandamus or the remedy under Article 226 is pre-                A
eminently a public law remedy and is not generally available as a remedy
against private wrongs. It is used for enforcement of various rights of the
public or to compel the public/statutory authorities to discharge their duties
and to act within their bounds. It may be used to do justice when there is
wrongful exercise of power or a refusal to perform duties. This writ is            B
admirably equipped to serve as a judicial control over administrative
actions. This writ could also be issued against any private body or 11erson,
 specially in view of the words used in Article 226 of the Constitution.
 However, such private authority must be discharging a public function
and the decision sought to be corrected or enforced must be in discharge of
a public function. The scope of mandamus is determined by the nature of            C
 the duty to be enforced, rather than the identity of the authority against
 whom it is sought. If the private body is discharging a public function and
.the denial of any right is in connection with the public duty imposed on
 such body, the public law remedy can be enforced. The duty cast on the
 public body may be either statutory or otherwise and the source of such           D
 power is immaterial, but, nevertheless, there must be the public law element
 in such action. The courts always retained the discretion to withhold the
 remedy where it would not be in the interest of justice to grant it. It is also
 to be noticed that the statutory duty in: posed on the public authorities may
  not be of discretionary character. (440-FH; 441-A-B; 430-B-C]
                                                                                   E
     1.3 It is difficult to draw a line between the public functions and
private functions when it is being discharged by a purely private rnthority.
A body is performing a "public function" when it seeks to achieve some
collective benefit for the public or a section of the public and is accepted
by the public or that section of the public as having authority to do so.          F
Bodies therefore exercise public functions when they intervene or
participate in social or economic affairs in the public interest. (431-C-D]

     Dwarkanath v. Income Tax Officer, (1965] 3 SCR 536; Regina v. Panel
on Take-overs and Mergers, Ex parte Datafin Pie., (1987) 1 QB 815 and
Council of Civil Services Union v. Minister for the Civil Service, (1985) AC       G
374, relied on.

     Wade and Forsyth, Administrative law (9th ed.) OUP p.621; de Smith,
Woolf & Jowell, Judicial Review of Administrative Action (5th ed.) chapter
3 para 0.24; Halsbury 'slaws of England, 3rd ed. Vol. 30, p. 682, referred         H
    424                  SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   to.

         2.1 A distinction has always been drawn between the public duties
    enforceable.by mandamus that are statutory and duties arising merely
    from contract. Contractual duties are enforceable as matters of private
    law by ordinary contractual remedies such as damages, injunction, specific
B
    performance a,nd declaration. In contractual matters even in respect of
    public bodies, the principles of judicial review have got limited application.
    The interpretation and implementation of clause in a contract cannot be
    the subject matter of a writ petition. Whether the contract envisages
    actual payment or not is a question of construction of contract. If a term
C   of a contract is violated, ordinarily, the remedy is not a writ petition
    under Article 226. There must be a public law element and it cannot be
    exercised to enforce purely private contracts entered into between the
    parties. [430-E-F; 441-F-H; 442-B-C]

          2.2 A contract would not become statutory simply because it is for
D
    construction of public utility and it has been awarded by a statutory body.
    But nevertheless it may be noticed that the Government or Government
    authorities at all levels is increasingly employing contractual techniques
    to achieve its regulatory aims. It cannot be said that the exercise of those
    powers are free from the zone of judicial review and that there would be
E   no limits to the exercise of such powers, but in normal circumstances,
    judicial review principle cannot be used to enforce the contractual
    obligations. When that contractual power is being used for public purpose,
    it is certainly amenable to judicial review. The power must be used for
    lawful purposes and not unreasonably. (441-C-E]
F
          2.3 The decision of the employer in these two cases to terminate the
    services of their employees cannot be said to have any element of public
    policy. Their cases were purely governed by the contract of employment
    entered into between the employees and the employer. It is not appropriate
    to construe those contracts as opposed to the principles of public policy
G   and thus void and illegal under section 23 of the Contract Act. The
    remedy available to the respondents is to seek redressal of their grievance
    in civil law or under the labour law enactments. (441-E-F; 442-B-C]

         Praga Tools Corporation v. CA. !manual, [1969] I SCC 585; VST
H   Industries Ltd. v. VST Industries Workers' Union, [2001] I SCC 298; General
        BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                   425

Manager, Kisan Sahkar Chini Mills limited, Sultanpur, UP v. Satru11han          A
Nishad, (2003] 8 SCC 639; Federal Bank Ltd. v. Sagar Thomas, (2003) 10
SCC 733; State of UP. v. Bridge & Roof Co., (1996) 6 SCC 22 and Kera/a
State Electricity Board v. Kurien E. Kalathil, (2000) 6 SCC 295, followed.

     Andi Mukta Sadguru Shree Muktajee Vandas Swami Suvarna Jayanti
Mahotsav Smarak Trust & Ors. v. V. R. Rudani, (J 989) 2 SCC 691; Central
                                                                                B
Inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly, [1986) 3
SCC 156 and Delhi Transport Corporation v. DTC Mazdoor Congress,
(1991] Supp. 1 SCC 600, distinguished.

     CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION: Civil Appeal No. 1976of1998.                 C

    From the Judgment and Order dated 2.12.97 of the Madras High Court
in W.P. No.I 1862 of 1996.

                                   WITH
                                                                                D
     C.A. No. 4839 of 2005.

    Dr. Rajiv Dhawan, Ms. Indira Jaisingh, (NP), Shasidharan, V. Balaji,
Ms. A. Radhakrishnan, Ms. T.S. Santhi, P.N. Ramalingam, Bharat Sangal,
Ms. Sangeeta Panicker and R.R. Kumar for the Appellants.                        E

     Jamshed Cama, S. Guru Krishna Kumar, Mrs. Srikala, C.K.M. Singh,
S.R. Setia, K. Gulati, Ms. Seema Sundd, Mrs. Manik Karanjawala for the
Respondents.

     The Judgment of the Court was delivered by
                                                                                F

     K.G. BALAKRISHNAN, J. : Leave granted in SLP(C ) No. 60 I 6/2002
and the appeal is heard along with Civil Appeal No. I 976/l 998. In these two
appeals, common questions of law arise for consideration.
                                                                                G
     In Civil Appeal No. I 976/1998, narration of brief facts is necessary to
understand whether the reliefs as prayed for by respondents 2 to 36 could
have been granted by the High Court. Each of the respondents was working
as member of the management staff of the appellant company, which was
engaged in the manufacture of cloth. The respondents were originally            H
    426                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   appointed in the appellant-company in various jobs such as Clerks, Machine
    Overlookers, Supervisors, etc. According to these respondents, from 1981
    onwards, the appellant company started insisting on them to be designated
    as management staff with the object of avoiding payment of overtime wages.
    The respondents signed an agreement with the Management acceding to the
    request of the appellant company, but they continued to perform the same
B
    duties as before. The appellant company contended that there was incessant
    rain in the night of 12.6.1996 when the entire company premises was flooded
    with water and it caused serious damage to the plant and machinery and
    finished-stock and the appellant company stayed all the operations and
    informed the Commissioner of Labou:- that water had entered the mill
c   premises causing serious damage to the plant and machinery and management
    had no other alternative but to suspend the operations of the mill. Order of
    termination was issued to the respondents invoking Clause 8 of the agreement
    dated 12.3.1991 entered into by the respondents with the appellant company.
    As per clause 8 of the agreement, the Management had a right to terminate
    the services without assigning any reason by just giving one month's notice
D
    or salary in lieu thereof. Appellant contended that all these respondents were
    drawing salary of more than Rs. 1,600 per month and they were not
     'workmen' under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947. The respondents filed
     Writ petition No. 11862/1996 for a Declaration that Clause 8 of the
    Agreement read with Order of termination dated 31. 7 .1996 issued by the
E    appellant company was void and illegal and violative of Section 23 of the
    Indian Contracts Act. The respondents had also contended that the agreement
    entered into by the respondents with the appellant company was violative of
    Article 21 of the Constitution and the closure of the mill was against Section
    25F and 25N of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, and they sought for a
F   direction to reinstate them in service with continuity of service and all
    consequential benefits. The appellant-company contended that the Writ
    Petition was not maintainable as the appellant company was a private body;
    therefore, the question of granting the declaration sought would not arise. It
    was also contended that there was alternative efficacious remedy available
    to them and therefore, the discretionary jurisdiction under Article 226 of the
G   Constitution of India should not be exercised. The appellant company also
    contended that the respondents were not entitled to seek a Writ of Mandamus
    as the appellant was a private company and the decision of the appellant
    company to terminate the services of the respondents is not liable to be the
    subject matter of judicial review. According to the appellant company, they
H    were neither 'public authorities' nor their action involved public law element,
        BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                     427

for which remedy of Writ of Mandamus was available. The Writ Petition was         A
considered by the Division Bench of the Madras High Court. The Court held
that Clause 8 of the agreement entered into between the respondents 2 to 36
and the appellant was void and unenforceable against the respondents as
being violative of Section 23 of the Indian Contracts Act. Reliance was placed
on Central Inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly,
                                                                                  B
[ 1986] 3 SCC I 56 and the High Court ultimately held that in the proceedings
under Article 226, the respondents herein would not be entitled to get the
relief of reinstatement and back wages and the court granted only a
declaratory relief to the effect that the termination order was illegal and the
respondents had to work out an appropriate remedy before the appropriate
forum.                                                                            c
      In the appeal arising out of SLP (Civil) No. 6106/2000, the appellant
was employed as a Corporate Legal Manager with the Isl respondent
company, which is a private limited company engaged in the manufacture
of chemicals. The services of the appellant were terminated with effect from      D
l.6.!998. The appellant sought for the issue of a Writ or other appropriate
Order to quash or set aside the Termination Order dated l.6.1998. He also
sought for a Writ of Mandamus directing the respondents to allow the
appellant to report for work in the same grade and pay-scale to which he was
originally employed. The respondent company contended that the Writ
Petition was not maintainable as the respondent company was a private             E
employer and the appellant was working under a private contract of
employment. The Writ Petition filed by the appellant was referred to a larger
Bench in view of the important question of law raised by the parties and the
Full Bench of the Bombay High Court elaborately considered the question
and held that the appellant was not entitled to the remedy sought for and the     F
Writ Petition was not maintainable. The Full Bench held that by terminating
the services of the appellant, the Company was not discharging any public
function and, therefore, the action sought to be challenged by the appellant
was not amenable to the jurisdiction of judicial review.

     We heard the learned Counsel on either side. Reference was made to           G
various decisions on the subject.

     The contention of the appellant in Civil Appeal No. 1976/1998 was that
the decision ·or the High Court invoking the extraordinary jurisdiction under
Article 226 of the Constitution was incorrect and that the Court should not       H
    428                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   have interfered with the decision of a private limited company and that the
    powers under Article 226 cannot be invoked against a private authority who
    is discharging its functions on the basis of the contract entered into between
    the employer and the employees. It was contended that the remedy available
    to the workers was only ordinary civil litigation. It was also contended that
    there was no public law element in the action taken by the appellant against
B
    the employees and, therefore, the public law remedy of judicial review had
    no application.

          Employees who are respondents in that appeal contended that their
    contract with the appellant was per se illegal and void as it was opposed to
C   Section 23 of the Indian Contracts Act. It was argued that under similar
    circumstances, this court had given direction to redress the grievances of the
    employees. Reference was made to Central Inland Water Transport
    Corporation ltd. v. Brajo Nath Ganguly, [1986] 3 SCC 156 and it was
    contended by the respondent employees that the decision to terminate their
    services was based on a specific clause in the contract which by itself is void
D
    in view of Section 23 of the Indian Contracts Act. Therefore, the High Court
    was justified in giving a declaratory relief in their favour.

          In Civil Appeal arising out of SLP (Civil) No. 6016 of 2002, the
    appellant contended that the action of the respondent was illegal and void
E   and his services should not have been terminated by the employer. According
    to the appellant, even if the decision-making authority is a private body or
    not an 'authority' coming within the purview of Article 12 of the Constitution,
    on wider issues, the jurisdiction of the High Court under Article 226 can be
    invoked to set aside the illegal act and to protect the fundamental rights of
    the aggrieved party. The learned Counsel for the respondent representing the
F
    company submitted that the appellant had been rightly discharged from the
    services and the company being a private authority was not amenable to the
    writ jurisdiction of the High Court. It was submitted that under the powers
    of judicial review by the High Court, a public action alone could have been
    challenged and the decision to terminate the service of an employee on the
G   ground that his services were unsatisfactory does not have any public law
    element and, therefore, the High Court has rightly rejected the contentions
    advanced by the appellant therein.

          We have carefully considered the various contentions urged by the
H   partie§'on either side. In order to decide the question, it is necessary to trace
        BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIV AN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                      429

the history of law relating to judicial review of public actions.                   A
     Superior Court's supervisory jurisdiction of judiciol review is invoked
by an aggrieved party in myriad cases. High Courts in India are empowered
under Article 226 of the Constitution to exercise judicial review to correct
administrative decisions and under this jurisdiction High Court can issue to
any person or authority, any direction or order or writs for enforcement of         B
any of the rights conferred by Part lil .or for any other purpose. The
jurisdiction conferred on the High Court under Article 226 is very wide.
 However, it is an accepted principle that this is a public law remedy and it
 is available against a body or person performing public law function. Before
considering the scope and ambit of public law remedy in the light of certain        c
 English decisions, it is worthwhile to remember the words of Subha Rao J.
 expressed in relation to the powers conferred on the High Court under Article
 226 of the Constitution in Dwarkanath v. Income Tax Officer, [ l 965] 3 SCR
536 at pages 540-41:

         "This article is couched in comprehensive phraseology and it ex            D
         facie confers a wide power on the High Courts to reach injustice
         wherever it is found. The Constitution designedly used a wide
         language in describing the nature of the power, the purpose for
         which and the person or authority against whom it can be exercisetl.
         It can issue writs in the nature of prerogative writs as understood        E
         in England; but the scope of those writs also is widened by the use
         of the expression "nature", for the said expression does not equate
         the writs that can be issued in India with those in England, but only
         draws an analogy from them. That apart, High Courts can also issue
         directions, orders or writs other than the prerogative writs. It enables
         the High Court to mould the reliefs to meet the peculiar and               F
         complicated requirements of this country. Any attempt to equate the
         scope of the power of the High Court under Article 226 of the
         Constitution of India with that of the English Courts to issue
         prerogative writs is to introduce the unnecessary procedural
         restrictions grown over the years in a comparatively small country         G
         like England with a unitary form of Government into a vast country
         like India functioning under a federal structure. Such a construction
         defeats the purpose of the article itself."

      The Writ of Mandamus lies to secure the performance of a public or
a statutory duty. The prerogative remedy of mandamus has long provided the          H
    430                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005) SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   normal means of enforcing the performance of public duties by public
    authorities. Originally, the writ of mandamus was merely an administrative
    order from the sovereign to subordinates. In England, in early times, it was
    made generally available through the Court of King's Bench, when the
    Central Government had little administrative machinery 0f its own. Early
    decisions show that there was free use of the writ for the enforcement of
B
    public duties of all kinds, for instance against inferior tribunals which refused
    to exercise their jurisdiction or against municipal corporation which did not
    duly hold elections, meetings, and so forth. In modem times, the mandamus
    is used to enforce statutory duties of public authorities. The courts always
    retained the discretion to withhold the remedy where it would not be in the
C   interest of justice to grant it. It is also to be noticed that the statutory duty
    imposed on the public authorities may not be of discretionary character. A
    distinction had always been drawn between the public duties enforceable by
    mandamus that are statutory and duties arising merely from contract.
    Contractual duties are enforceable as matters of private law by ordinary
    contractual remedies such as damages, injunction, specific performance and
D
    declaration. In the Administrative Law (Ninth Edition) by Sir William Wade
    and Christopher Forsyth, (Oxford University Press) at page 621, the
    following opinion is expressed:

             "A distinction which needs to be clarified is that between public
E            duties enforceable by mandamus, which are usually statutory, and
             duties arising merely from contract. Contractual duties are enforceable
             as matters of private law by the ordinary contractual remedies, such
             as damages, injunction, specific performance and declaration. They
             are not enforceable by mandamus, which in the first place is
             confined to public duties and secondly is not granted where there
F            are other adequate remedies. This difference is brought out by the
             relief granted in cases of ultra vires. If for example a minister or
             a licensing authority acts contrary to the principles·ofnaturaljustice,
             certiorari and mandamus are standard remedies. But if a trade union
             disciplinary committee acts in the same way, these remedies are
G            inapplicable: the rights of its members depend upon their contract
             of membership, and are to be protected by declaration and injunction,
             which accordingly are the remedies employed in such cases."

         Judicial review is designed to prevent the cases of abuse of power and
    neglect of duty by public authorities. However, under our Constitution,
H   Article 226 is couched in such a way that a writ of mandamus could be issued
         BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                       431

even against a private authority. However, such private authority must be            A
discharging a public function and that the decision sought to be corrected or
enforced must be in discharge of a public function. The role of the State
expanded enonnously and attempts have been made to create various
agencies to perfonn the governmental functions. Several corporations and
companies have also been fanned by the government to run industries and              B
to carry on trading activities. These have come to be known as Public Sector
Undertakings. However, in the interpretation given to Article 12 of the
Constitution, this Court took the view that many of these companies and
corporations could come within the sweep of Article 12 of the Constitution.
At the same time, there are private bodies also which may be discharging
public functions. It is difficult to draw a line between the public functions        C
and private functions when it is being discharged by a purely private
authority. A body is perfonning a "public function" when it seeks to achieve
some collective benefit for the public or a section of the public an<l is accepted
by the public or that section of the public as having authority to do so. Bodies
therefore exercise public functions when they intervene or participate in            D
 social or economic affairs in the public interest. In a book on Judicial Review
 ofAdministrative Action (Fifth Edn.) by de Smith, Woolf & Jowell in Chapter
 3 para 0.24, it is stated thus:

         "A body is performing a "public function" when it seeks to achieve
         some collective benefit for the public or a section of the public and       E
         is accepted by the public or that section of the public as having
         authority to do so. Bodies therefore exercise public functions when
         they intervene or participate in social or economic affairs in the
         public interest. This may happen in a wide variety of ways. For
         instance, a body is perfonning a public function when it provides           F
         "public goods" or other collective services, such as health care,
         education and personal social services, from funds raised by taxation.
         A body may perfonn public functions in the fonn of adjudicatory
         services (such as those of the criminal and civil courts and tribunal
         system). They also do so if they regulate commercial and professional
         activities to ensure compliance with proper standards. For all these        G
         purposes, a range of legal and administrative techniques may be
         deployed, including: rule-making, adjudication (and other fonns of
         dispute resolution); inspection; and licensing:

               Public functions need not be the exclusive domain of the state.       H
    432                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005) SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A            Charities, self-regulatory organizations and other nominally private
             institutions (such as universities, the Stock Exchange, Lloyd's of
             London, churches) may in reality also perform some types of public
             function. As Sir John Donaldson M.R. urged, it is important for the
             courts to "recognise the realities of executive power" and not allow
             "their vision to be clouded by the subtlety and sometimes complexity
B            of the way in which it can be exerted". Non-govern.nental bodies
             such as these are just as capable of abusing their powers as is
             government."

          In Regina v. Panel on Take-overs and Merges, Ex parte Datafin Pie.
c And Another, (1987) 1 Queen's Bench Division 815, a question arose whether
    the Panel of Take-overs and Mergers had acted in concert with other parties
    in breach of the City Code on Take-overs and Mergers. The panel dismissed
    the complaint of the applicants. Though the Panel on Take-over and Mergers
    was purely a private body, the Court of Appeal held that the supervisory
    jurisdiction of the High Court was adaptable and could be extended to any
D
    body which performed or operated as an integral part of a system which
    performed public law duties, which was supported by public law sanctions
    and which was under an obligation to act judicially, but whose source of
    power was not simply the consent of those ov~r whom it exercised that
    power; that although the panel purported to be part of a system of self-
E   regulation and to derive its powers solely from the consent of those whom
     its decisions affected, it was in fact operating as an integral part of a
    governmental framework for the regulation. of financial activity in the City
     of London, was supported by a periphery of statutory powers and penalties,
     and was under a duty in exercising what amounted to public powers to act
    judicially; that, therefore, the court had jurisdiction to review the panel's
F
     decision to dismiss the applicants' complaint; but that since, on the facts,
     there were no grounds for interfering with the panel's decision, the court
     would decline to intervene.

         Lloyd L.J, agreeing with the opinion expressed by Sir John Donaldson
G    MR. held:

             "I do not agree that the ~ource of the power is the sole test whether
             a body is subject to judicial review, nor do I so read Lord Diplock's
             speech. Of course the source of the power will often, perhaps
             usually, be decisive. If tht: source of power is a statute, or subordinate
H
        BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                       433

        legislation under a statute, then clearly the body in question will be      A
        subject to judicial review. [fat the end of the scale, the source of
        power is contractual, as in the case of private arbitration, then clearly
        the arbitrator is not subject to judicial review.

     In that decision, they approved the observations made by lord Diplock
in Council a/Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service, (1985)         B
A.C. 374, 409 wherein it was held :

        " ... for a decision to be susceptible to judicial review the decision-
        maker must be empowered by public law (and not merely, as in
        arbitration, by agreement between private parties) to make decisions        C
        that, if validly made, will lead to administrative action or abstention
        from action by an authority endowed by law with executive powers
        which have one or other of the consequences mentioned in the
        preceding paragraph. The ultimate source of the decision-making
        power is nearly always nowadays a statute or subordinate legislation
        made under the statute; but in the absence of any statute regulating        D
        the subject matter of the decision the source of the decision-making
        power may still be the common law itself, i.e., that part of the
        common law that is given by lawyers the label of 'the prerosative.'
         Where this is the source of decision·making power, the power is
        confined to executive officers of central as distinct from local            E
        government and in constitutional practice is generally exercised by
         those holding ministerial rank"

     It is also pertinent to refer to Sir John Donaldson MR. in that Take-
Over Panel case :
                                                                                    F
        "In all the reports it is possible to find enumerations of factors giving
        rise to the jurisdiction, essential or as being e.<clusive of other
        factors. Possibly the only essential elements are what can be
        described as a public element, which can take many different forms,
        and the exclusion from the jurisdiction of bodies whose sole source
        of power is a consensual submission to is jurisdiction."
                                                                                    G

     The above guidelines and principles applied by English courts cannot
be fully applied to Indian conditions when exercising jurisdiction under
Article226 or 32 of the Constitution. As already stated, the power of the High
Courts under Article 226 is very wide and these powers have to be exercised         H
    434                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   by applying the constitutional provisions and judicial guidelines and violation,
    if any, of the fundamental rights guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution.
    In the matter of employment of workers by private bodies on the basis of
    contracts entered into between them, the courts had been reluctant to exercise
    the powers of judicial review and whenever the powers were exercised as
    against private employers, it was solely done based on public law element
B
    involved therein.

          This view was expressly stated by this Court in various decisions and
    one of the earliest decisions is The Praga Tools Corporation v. Shri C.A.
    /manual and Others, [1969] 1 SCC 585. In this case, the appellant company
C   was a company incorporated under the Indian Companies Act and at the
    material time the Union Government and the Government of Andhra Pradesh
    held 56 per cent and 32 per cent of its shares respectively. Respondent
    workmen filed a writ petition under Article 226 in the High Court of Andhra
    Pradesh challenging the validity of an agreement entered into between the
    employees and the company, seeking a writ of mandamus or an order or
D
    direction restraining the appellant from implementing the said agreement.
    The appellant raised objection as to the maintainability of the writ petition.
    The learned Single Judge dismissed the petition. The Division Bench held
    that the petition was not maintainable against the company. However, it
    granted a declaration in favour of three workmen, the validity of which was
E   challenged before this Court. This Court held at pages 589-590 as under:

             " .... that the applicant for a mandamus should have a legal and
             specific right to enforce the performance of those dues. Therefore,
             the condition precedent for the issue of mandamus is that there. is
             in one claiming it a legal right to the performance of a legal duty
F
             by one against whom it is sought. An order of mandamus is, in form,
                                                                •·
             a command directed to a person, corporation or any inferior tribun.al
             requiring him or them to do is particular thing therein specified
             which appertains to his or their office and is in the nature of a public
             duty. It is, however, not necessary that the person or the authority
G            on whom the statutory duty is imposed need be a public official or
             an official body. A mandamus can issue, for instance, to an official
             of a society to compel him to carry out the terms of the statute under
             or by which the society is constituted or governed and also to
             companies or corporations to carry out duties placed on them by the
H            statutes authorizing their undertakings. A mandamus would also lie
        BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIV AN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                        435

        against a company constituted by a statute for the purpose of                 A
        fulfilling public responsibilities [Cf. Halsbury's Laws of England
        (3rd Ed.), Vol.II p 52 and onwards].

        The company being a non-statutory body and one incorporated
        under the Companies Act there was neither a statutory nor a public
        duty imposed on it by a statute in respect of which enforcement
                                                                                      B
        could be sought by means of a mandamus, nor was there in its
        workmen any corresponding legal right for enforcement of any such
        statutory or public duty. The High Court, therefore, was right in
        holding that no writ petition for a mandamus or an order in the
        nature of mandamus cpuld lie against the company."                            c
      It was also observed that when the High Court had held that the writ
petition was not maintainable, no relief of a declaration as to invalidity of
an impugned· agreement between the company and its employees could be
granted and that the High Court committed an error in granting such a
                                                                                      D
declaration.

      In VST Industries Limited v. VST Industries Workers' Union & Anr.,
[2001] l SCC 298, the very same question came up for consideration. The
appellant-company was engaged in the manufacture and sale of cigarettes.
A petition was filed by the first respondent under Article 226 of the                 E
Constitution seeking a writ of mandamus to treat the members of the
respondent Union, who were employees working in the canteen of the
appellant's factory, as employees of the appellant and for grant of monetary
and other consequential benefits. Speaking for the Bench, Rajendra Babu,
J., (as he then was), held as follows :
                                                                                      F
         "7. In de Smith, Woolfand Jowel/ 's Judicial Review ofAdministrative
         Action, 5th Edn., it is noticed that not all the activities of the private
         bodies are subject to private law, e.g., the activities by private bodies
         may be governed by the standards of P.u!>lic when its decisions are
         subject to duties conferred by statute or when by virtue of the              G
         function it is performing or possible its dominant position in the
         market, it is under an implied duty to act in the public interest. By
         way of illustration, it is noticed that a private company selected to
         run a prison although motivated by commercial profit should be
         regarded, at least in relation to some of its activities, as subject to
                                                                                      H
    436                 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A          public law because of the nature of the function it is performing.
           This is because the prisoners, for whose custody and care it is
           responsible, are in the prison in consequence of an order of the court,
           and the purpose and nature of their detention is a matter of public
           concern and interest. After detailed discussion, the learned authors
           have summarized the position with the following propositions :
B
            (1)   The test of a whether a body is performing a public function,
                  and is hence amenable to judicial review, may not depend upon
                  the source of its power or whether the body is ostensibly a
                  "public" or a "private" body.
c
            (2)   The principles of judicial review prima facie govern the
                  activities of bodies performing public functions.

            (3)   However, not all decisions taken by bodies in the course of
                  their public functions are the subject matter of judicial review.
D                 In the following two situations judicial review will not normally
                  be appropriate even though the body may be performing a
                  public function.

                  (a) Where some other branch of the law more appropriately
E                 governs the dispute between the parties. In such a case, that
                  branch of the Jaw and its remedies should and normally will
                  be applied; and

                  (b) Where there is a contract between the litigants. In such a
                  case the express or implied terms of the agreement should
F
                  normally govern the matter. This reflects the normal approach
                  of English law, namely, that the terms of a contract will
                  normally govern the transaction, or other relationship between
                  the parties, rather than the general law. Thus, where a special
                  method of resolving disputes (such as arbitration or resolution
G                 by private or domestic tribunals) has been agreed upon by the
                  parties (expressly or by necessary implication), that regime,
                  and not judicial review, will normally govern the dispute.

          Applying the above principles, this Court held that the High Court
    rightly held that it had no jurisdiction.
H
         BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                      437

      Another decision on the same subject is General Manager, Kisan                A
Sahkar Chini Mills Limited, Sultanpur, UP v. Satrughan Nishad and Ors.,
[2003] 8 SCC 639. The appellant was a cooperative society and was engaged
in the manufacture of sugar. The respondents were the workers of the
appellant and they filed various writ petitions contending that they had to be
treated as permanent workmen. The appellant challenged the maintainability          B
of those writ petitions and applying the principles enunciated :n VST
Industries' case (supra), it was held by this Court that the High Court had
no jurisdiction to entertain an application under Article 226 of the Constitution
as the mill was engaged in the manufacture and sale of sugar which would
not involve any public function.
                                                                                    c
      In Federal Bank Limited v. Sagar Thomas & Ors., [2003] IO SCC 733,
the respondent was working as a Branch Manager of the appellant Bank. He
was suspended and there was a disciplinary enquiry wherein he was found
guilty and dismissed from service. The respondent challenged his dismissal
by filing a writ petition. The learned Single Judge held that the Federal Bank
                                                                                    D
was performing a public duty and as such it fell within the definition of"other
authorities" under Article 12 of the Constitution. The appellant bank
preferred an appeal, but the same was dismissed and the decision of the
Division Bench was challenged before this Court. This Court observed that
a private company carrying on business as a scheduled bank cannot be termed
as carrying on statutory or public duty and it was therefore held that any          E
business or commercial activity, whether it may be banking, manufacturing
units or related to any other kind of business generating resources, emrloyment,
production and resulting in circulation of money which do have an impact
on the economy of the country in general, cannot be classified as one falling
in the category of those discharging duties or functions of a public nature.
                                                                                    F
It was held that that the jurisdiction of the High Court under Article 226 could
not have been invoked in that case.

      The counsel for the respondent in Civil Appeal No. 1976 of 1998 and
for the appellant in the civil appeal arising out of SLP(Civil) No. 6016 of
2002 strongly contended that irrespective of the nature of the body, the writ       G
petition under Article 226 is maintainable provided such body is discharging
a public function or statutory function and that the decision itself has the
flavour of public law element and they relied on the decision of this Court
in Andi Mukta Sadguru Shree Muktajee Vandas Swami Suvarna Jayanti
Mahotsav Smarak Trust & Ors. v. V.R. Rudani & Ors., [1989] 2 SCC 691.               H
    438                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS (2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   In this case, the appellant was a Trust running a science college affiliated to
    the Gujarat University under Gujarat University Act, 1949. The teachers
    working in that college were paid in the pay scales recommended by the
    University Grants Commission and the college was an aided institution.
    There was some dispute between the University Teachers Association and
    the University regarding the fixation of their pay scales. Ultimately, the
B
    Chancellor passed an award and this award was accepted by the State Govt.
    as well as the University and the University directed to pay the teachers as
    per the award. The appellants refused to implement the award and the
    respondents filed a writ petition seeking a writ of mandamus and in the writ
    petition the appellants contended that the college managed by the Trust was
C   not an "authority" coming within the purview of Article 12 of the Constitution
    and therefore the writ petition was not maintainable. This plea was rejected
    and this Court held that the writ of mandamus would lie against a private
     individual and the words "any person or authority" used in Article 226 are
    not to be confined only to statutory authorities and instrumentalities of the
D   State and they may cover any other person or body perfonning public duty.
    The fonn of the body concerned is not very much relevant. What is relevant
     is the nature of the duty imposed on the body. The duty must be judged in
    the light of positive obligation owed by the person or authority to the affected
    party. No matter by what means the duty is imposed, if a positive obligation
     exists, mandamus cannot be denied.
E
          The above decision cannot be applied to the facts of this case. It is
    important to note that the college was an aided institution and imparting
    education to students. These facts are specifically stated in paragraph 15 of
    the judgment. It was in this background that this Court held that there was
F   a public law element in the matter involved therein and that the college
    authorities were bound to pay salary and allowances to the teachers. The said
    case did not emanate from a contract of employment between the workers
    and the private body. For that reason, the Rudani 's case cannot be applied
    to the facts of the present case.

G         Two other decisions relied upon by the appellant to argue that the writ
    petition was maintainable are the decisions reported in [1986] 3 sec 156
    Central Inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd. & Anr. v. Brojo Nath
    Ganguly & Anr. (supra) and in (1991] Supp (1) SCC 600 Delhi Transport
    Corporation v. DTC Mazdoor Congress & Ors. The Central Inland case was
H   extensively relied on. In this case, the appellant corporation was a Govt.
         BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIV AN [BALAKRISHNAN, J.]                    439

company incorporated under the Companies Act and the majority of the               A
shares were held by the Union of India and remaining shares were held by
the State of West Bengal. Each of the respondents in the two appeals was
in the service of the said company. A notice under Rule 9(1) was served on
them and their services were terminated with immediate effect by paying
three months pay. They filed writ petitions before the High Court and the
                                                                                   B
Division Bench allowed the same. The appellant corporation filed an appeal
before this Court. The main thrust of the argument of the respondents was
that Rule 9(1) of Central Inland Water Transport Corporation limited
(Service, Discipline and Appeal) Rules, 1979 was void and illegal ard
violative of Article 14 of the Constitution and it was also void in view Section
23 of the Contract Act. This Court held that Rule 9(1) was violative of Article    c
14 as it was against the public policy as the employer had absolute power
to terminate the service of an employee giving three months notice. This
Court held that this was an absolute arbitrary power given to the corporation
and termination of the respondent employees by invoking Rule 9( l) was
illegal.
                                                                                   D
      1t is important to understand the real dicta laid down in the background
of the facts involved therein. The appellant was a public sector undertaking
and in that view of the matter it was held that the contract of employment
and the service rules which gave absolute and arbitrary power to tenninate
the service of the employees were illegal. 1t may be also noticed that the         E
termination clause was referred to in the context of the contract read as a
whole and no enquiry was contemplated under the rules even in the cas.' of
allegation of misconduct and it was held to be violative of the principles of
natural justice. It was also held to be violative of Section 23 of the Contract
Act as it was opposed to public policy to terminate the services of the            F
employee without conducting an enquiry even on the ground of misconduct.
The public policy principles can be applied to the employment in public
sector undertaking in appropriate cases. But the same principles cannot be
applied to private bodies. There are various labour laws which curtail the
power of the employer from doing any anti-labour activity. Sufficient
safeguards are made in the labour law enactments to protect the interests of       G
the employees of private sector. The service rules and regulations which are
applicable to govt. employees or employees of public sector undertakings
stand on a different footing and they cannot be tested on the same touchstone
or enforced in the same manner. Therefore, the decision rendered by this
Court in Central Inland case is of no assistance to the respondents in Civil       H
    440                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A   Appeal No. 1976 of 1988 or to the appellants in the· civil appeal arising out
    of SLP (Civil) No. 60 I 6 of 2002.

          In the second case also , namely, the Delhi Transport Corporation v.
    DTC Mazdoor Congress & Ors., [1991] Supp. (1) SCC 600, the appellant
    was a public sector undertaking and the main controversy was about the term
B
    "other authorities" under Article 12 of the Constitution. Both in Central
    Inland and DTC cases, the decision of the public sector undertaking was
    under challenge and the question raised was whether the principles of natural
    justice and fairness are to be applied. It was held that this Court has got
    jurisdiction to consider this question by invoking the principles of judicial
C   review. But it would be noticed that in both the cases, it was a public sector
    undertaking coming within the purview of"other authorities" under Article
     12 of the Constitution.

          In this context, it must be noted that the High Court p1,1rported to apply
    the ratio in the above two decisions on the assumption that all t:!rmination
D
    simplicitor clauses providing for termination on giving notice will be per se
    invalid. But the High Court has not examined clauses (8) & (9) of the
    Agreement between Management and the Staff of Binny Limited in their
    entirety. Clause (9) contemplates an inquiry in a case of termination for
    misconduct. Thus there is a provision for natural justice in case of termination
E   involving misconduct and stigma. In such a case, whether the ratio q_f the
    decisions in DTC and Central Inland cases would apply or not, wall not
    examined by the High Court. This is an additional reason why the declaration
    by the High Court should not be allowed to stand.

          Thus, it can be seen that a writ of mandamus or the remedy under Article
F
    226 is pre-eminently a public law remedy and is not generally available as
    a remedy against private wrongs. It is used for enforcement of various tights
    of the public or to compel the public/statutory authorities to discharge their
    duties and to act within their bounds. It may be used to do justice when there
    is wrongful exercise of power or a refusal to perform duties." This writ is
G   admirably equipped to serve as a judicial control over administrative actions.
    This writ could also be issued against any private body or person, specially
    in view of the words used in Article 226 of the Constitution. However, the
    scope of mandamus is limited to enforcement of public duty. The scope of
    mandamus is determined by the nature of the duty to be enforced, rather than
H   the identity of the authority against whom it is sought. If the private body
          BINNY LTD. v. V. SADASIVAN [BALAKRJSHNAN, J.]                      441

 is discharging a public function and the denial of any right is in connection       A
 with the public duty imposed on such body, the public law remedy can be
 enforced. The duty cast on the public body may be either statutory or
 otherwise and the source of such power is immaterial, but, nevertheless, there
 must be the public law element in such action. Sometimes, it is difficult to
 distinguish between public law and private law remedies. According to               B
 Halsbury's Laws of England 3rd ed. Vol. 30, page-682, "a public authority
 is a body not necessarily a county council, municipal corporation or other
 local authority which has public statutory duties to perform and which
 perform the duties and carries out its transactions for the benefit of the public
 and not for private profit." There cannot be any general definition of public
 authority or public action. The facts of each case decide the point.                C
        A contract would not become statutory simply because it is for
  construction of a public utility and it has been awarded by a statutory body.
  But nevertheless it may be noticed that the Government or Government
· authorities at all levels .is increasingly employing contractual techniques to
                                                                                     D
  achieve its regulatory aims. It cannot be said that the exercise of those powers
  are free from the zone of judicial review and that there would be no limits
 to the exercise of such powers, but in normal circumstances, judicial review
 principles cannot be used to enforce the contractual obligations. When that
 contractual po_wer is being used for public purpose, it is certainly amenable
 to judicial review. The power must be used for lawful purposes and not              E <
 unreasonably.

        The decision of the employer in these two cases to terminate the services
 of their employees cannot be said to have any element of public policy. Their
 cases were purely governed by the contract of employment entered into               F
 between the employees and the employer. It is not appropriate to construe
 those contracts as opposed to the principles of public policy and thus void
 and illegal under Section 23 of the Contract Act. In contractual matters even
 in respect of public bodies, the principles of judicial review have got limited
 application. This was expressly stated by this Court in State of U.P. v. Bridge
 & Roof Co., [1996] 6 SCC 22 and also in Kera/a State Electricity Board v.           G
 Kurien E. Kalathil, [2000] 6 SCC 295. In the latter case, this Court reiterated
 tha.t the interpretation and implementation of a clause in a contract cannot
 be the subject matter of a writ petition. Whether the contract envisages actual
 payment or not is a question of construction of contract. Ifa term of a contract
 is violated, ordinarily, the remedy is not a writ petition under Article 226.       H
    442                   SUPREME COURT REPORTS [2005] SUPP. 2 S.C.R.

A         Applying these principles, it can very well be said that a writ of
    mandamus can be issued against a private body which is not a State within
    the meaning of Article 12 of the Constitution and such body is amenable to
    the jurisdiction under Article 226 of the Constitution and the High Court
    under Article 226 of the Constitution can exercise judicial review of the
    action challenged by a party. But there must be a public law element and it
B   cannot be exercised to enforce purely private contracts entered into between
    the parties.

          We are unable to perceive any public law element in the termination
    of the employees by the appellant in Civil Appeal No. 1976 of 1998 and the
c   remedy available to the respondents is to seek redressal of their grievance
    in civil law or under the labour law enactments especially in view of the
    disputed questions involved as regards the status of employees and other
    matters. So also, in the civil appeal arising out of SLP(Civil) No. 6016 of
    2002, the writ petition has been rightly dismissed by the High Court. We see
    no merit in the contention advanced by the appellant therein. The High Court
D   rightly held that there is no public law element and the remedy open to the
    appellant is to seek appropriate relief other than judicial review of the action
    taken by the respondent company.

         In the result, we set aside the declaration ordered by the High Court and
E   allow Civil Appeal No. 1976 of 1998 to the extent indicated above. Civil
    Appeal arising out ofSLP (Civil) No. 6016 of2002 is dismissed leaving open
    the right of the appellant to seek redressal of his grievance before other
    appropriate forum.

    K.G.                                                          Appeal allowed.